TEACHER'S  COURSE 

IN 

PHYSICALTRAINING 

BOWEM 


GEORGE     WAHR 

PUBLISHER 


A  TEACHERS'  COURSE 


IN 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


DESIGNED  FOR  TEACHERS  OF  THE 
PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 


BY 

WILBUR  P.  BOWEN 

PROFESSOR  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

MICHIGAN   STATE    NORMAL  COLLEGE 


ANN    ARBOR 

GEORGE  WAHR 

PUBLISHER 
1917 


: 


COPYRIGHT,  1917 
GEORGE  WAHR 


THE  ANN    ARBOR    PRESS- 


PREFACE. 


Twenty  years  ago,  when  this  course  was  first  published,  prep- 
aration of  teachers  for  the  work  had  been  little  more  than  begun. 
During  these  years  it  has  progressed  rapidly  and  now  full  courses 
of  a  half  year  or  more  are  given  in  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Me- 
chanics of  Exercise,  Physiology  of  Exercise,  and  several  other 
topics.  Altho  students  preparing  to  be  specialists  in  Physical 
Education  pursue  this  more  extensive  course,  there  are  still  those 
who  wish  to  read  the  general  theory  of  the  subject  within  the 
limits  of  a  single  brief  volume,  and  for  such  this  book  is  prepared. 

W.  P.  BOWEN. 
Ypsilanti,  July  18,  1916. 


6S8638 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER        TITLE  PAGE 

I.     The  Place  of  Physical  Training 7 

II.     The  Neuro-Muscular  Mechanism 10 

III.  The  Vital  Organs  of  the  Body 39 

IV.  The  Body  as  a  Machine 53 

V.     The  Mechanism  of  the  Upper  Limb 60 

VI.     The  Mechanism  of  the  Lower  Limb 95 

VII.     The  Mechanism  of  the  Trunk 129 

VIII.     Posture 147 

IX.     The  Effects  of  Exercise 159 

X.     Swedish  Gymnastics 175 

XI.     German  Gymnastics   221 

XII.     Play 240 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE   PLACE   OF    PHYSICAL   TRAINING    IN    EDUCATION,,    AND   ITS 
CHIEF  SUBDIVISIONS. 

TERMS  DEFINED. — Physical  training  means  the  exercise  and 
training  of  the  motor  powers  of  the  body,  carried  on  primarily  for 
the  sake  of  health,  discipline,  or  pleasure.  The  term  implies  some- 
thing systematic  and  regular,  done  intelligently  according  to  hy- 
gienic principles.  Physical  education  has  a  slightly  wider  mean- 
ing, including  all  of  physical  training  and  also  the  knowledge  of 
the  principles  that  should  guide  such  training.  Physical  training 
gives  the  hygienic  results  and  the  development  that  is  desired  at 
the  time ;  physical  education  does  this  and  also  prepares  the  in- 
dividual to  carry  on  his  own  physical  training  and  that  of  other 
people. 

The  term  physical  culture  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of 
physical  education,  but  it  has  never  been  used  by  the  best  authori- 
ties, for  it  means  too  much.  The  culture  of  the  body  would  in- 
clude not  only  exercise,  which  is  the  main  thing  here,  but  also 
feeding,  clothing,  housing,  nursing,  and  all  that  pertains  to  bodily 
welfare.  The  term  has  also  won  disrepute  by  its  being  used  wide- 
ly by  teachers  and  promoters  of  certain  superficial  types  of  phy- 
sical training  who  have  claimed  absurd  things  and  have  lacked 
scientific  knowledge  of  the  human  body. 

Physical  training  includes  (i)  play,  and  the  exercises  natural- 
ly related  to  it, — those  known  under  the  names  of  games,  sports, 
athletics,  recreation,  etc.,  and  (2)  the  more  formal  exercises  called 
gymnastics.  The  most  fundamental  and  natural  form  of  physical 
training  is  play.  We  see  this  in  its  simplest  and  most  typical 
form  in  the  activities  of  young  children  and  the  young  of  some 
animals.  It  is  aimless  activity,  instinctive  and  natural,  and  hence 
pleasurable.  As  the  child  learns  to  make  voluntary  movements, 
there  is  added  to  the  pleasure  of  mere  activity  the  satisfaction 


8  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

of  doing  something  he  has  seen  others  do, — the  beginning  of  the 
imitative  plays  of  childhood.  By  the  time  he  enters  school  the 
spirit  of  emulation  shows  itself,  and  plays  having  a  competitive 
element  have  an  added  interest.  As  his  judgment  and  motor 
ability  develop  he  comes  to  prefer  plays  in  which  he  has  to  ac- 
complish some  object  by  methods  of  his  own  choosing,  or  in 
accord  with  circumstances.  Here  we  have  the  beginning  of  games, 
into  which  there  is  later  introduced  the  element  of  team-play  or 
co-operation.  Finally,  as  maturity  is  reached,  and  the  competitive 
element  is  made  to  assume  great  proportions  by  the  giving  of 
costly  prizes,  the  honor  and  notoriety  attending  the  making  and 
breaking  of  records,  and  the  tremendous  excitement  prevailing  at 
the  contests,  that  which  started  as  the  simplest  play  reaches  its 
climax  in  college  athletics.  These  various  stages  in  the  evolution 
of  play  merge  gradually  into  one  another,  so  that  it  is  often  diffi- 
cult to  define  a  certain  form  or  to  set  it  off  by  definite  lines.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  other  offshoots  from  the  line  of  evolution 
above  indicated,  among  which,  as  types,  may  be  mentioned  danc- 
ing, boating,  camping,  sea-bathing,  mountain-climbing,  bicycling, 
hunting,  etc. 

Gymnastic  exercises  differ  from  play  in  the  artificial  and 
measured  character  of  the  movements.  In  a  game  each  movement 
is  made  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  being  suggested  by  the  imme- 
diate necessity  of  the  game  or  the  choice  of  the  player;  in  gym- 
nastics each  movement  is  made  according  to  a  preconceived  plan 
which  has  been  made  known  in  the  form  of  a  definition  or  model. 
Every  gymnastic  movement  is  definite  as  to  its  beginning,  its 
course,  its  speed,  and  its  ending.  Exercises  of  this  sort  are  there- 
fore much  more  immediately  and  completely  under  control  of  the 
teacher  than  those  of  the  other  group.  The  relation  of  the  two 
groups  of  exercises, — plays  and  gymnastics,  is  fundamental  and 
important,  and  it  can  easily  be  shown  that  each  is  calculated  to 
accomplish  some  purposes  better  than  the  other.  In  gymnastics 
the  movements  can  be  chosen  definitely  to  suit  the  needs  of  the 
class.  Excess  can  be  prevented,  faulty  postures  corrected,  sym- 
metrical development  provided  for,  and  a  wide  range  of  skill  and 
coordination  secured.  All  these  things  are  accomplished,  how- 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    DEFINED  9 

ever,  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  spontaneity  and  self-direction  that 
characterize  play,  and  which  develop  self-reliance  and  a  habit  of 
enthusiastic  and  vigorous  activity.  In  the  one,  the  pupil's  will 
submits  completely  to  the  will  of  another  and  is  trained  in  habits 
of  order,  obedience,  promptness,  and  accuracy.  In  the  other  the 
pupil  is  placed  in  a  community  of  individuals  possessing  equal 
rights  and  privileges,  where  the  law  and  its  enforcement  are  in 
the  interests  of  all,  and  there  he  learns  the  lessons  of  civilized 
society :  cooperation,  honesty,  forbearance,  courtesy.  That  is  in- 
deed a  defective  plan  of  physical  training  that  fails  to  employ 
both  kinds  of  exercises. 

When  gymnastics  are  used  for  the  treatment  of  disease  they 
are  called  medical  gymnastics.  As  such  they  are  classified  into 
active  movements,  passive  movements,  and  massage.  Active  move- 
ments are  those  made  voluntarily  by  the  patient,  under  direction 
of  the  physician.  Passive  movements  are  those  movements  of 
the  body  which  are  like  active  movements,  except  that  they  are 
made  by  some  outside  force,  which  may  be  another  person  or  a 
machine.  Massage  consists  in  the  manipulation  or  percussion  of 
the  tissues  by  the  hands. 

Gymnastics  used  for  educational,  developmental,  or  hygienic 
purposes  are  known  as  educational  or  pedagogical  gymnastics. 
In  this  large  division  are  included  ( i )  free  movements,  taken 
without  apparatus;  (2)  light  gymnastics,  in  which  such  light 
apparatus  as  bells,  clubs,  rings,  wands,  hoops,  etc.,  are  held  in 
the  hands,  and  (3)  heavy  gymnastics,  in  which  the  work  is  done 
upon  stationary  apparatus  and  the  performer  lifts  his  own  weight 
in  the  exercises. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE:   NEURO-MUSCULAR   SYSTEM. 

Physical  training  is  directly  concerned  with  bodily  move- 
ments, and  with  the  tissues  and  mechanisms  producing  those 
movements.  This  leads  us  first  to  the  consideration  of  the  struc- 
ture and  functions  of  the  muscular  system  and  the  nervous  system. 
These  two  systems  are  so  intimately  connected  that  they  are  often 
known  as  the  neuro -muscular  system.  They  constitute  the  means 
by  which  the  body  is  able  to  move  itself  and  other  bodies,  and  the 
instrument  through  which  the  activities  of  thinking,  feeling,  will- 
ing, knowing,  etc.,  are  manifested.  The  supreme  importance  of 
the  muscular  and  nervous  tissues  is  still  further  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  subordinate  activities  of  digestion,  circulation,  respiration, 
and  excretion  are  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  muscular  movements 
controlled  by  the  nervous  system.  Physiologists  therefore  speak 
of  the  muscular  and  nervous  tissues  as  the  master  tissues,  and  of 
all  other  tissues  as  subordinate  tissues,  for  the  support,  mainten- 
ance, and  protection  of  the  former. 

The  muscular  system  includes  (i)  the  skeletal  or  voluntary 
muscles,  (2)  the  involuntary  muscles,  and  (3)  the  heart.  The 
characteristic  property  of  muscle,  its  power  of  movement,  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  contractile  tissue,  a  form  of  living  protoplasm. 
It  is  reddish  yellow,  semi-transparent,  and  of  the  consistency  of 
jelly.  The  ability  of  muscle  to  retain  a  definite  form  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  connective  tissue,  a  strong  fibrous  tissue  which  is  not 
living  substance,  but  which*  is  formed  by  minute  cells  of  proto- 
plasm scattered  through  it.  There  are  two  varieties  of  con- 
nective tissue ;  white  fibers,  long,  unbranched,  wavy,  and  inelastic,- 
and  yellow  fibers,  branching,  elastic,  sometimes  flattened,  having 
less  strength. 

The  structural  unit  of  muscle  is  the  muscle-fiber,  which  con- 
sists of  a  minute  portion  of  the  contractile  tissue  enclosed  in  a 


THE    NEURO-MUSCUEAR   SYSTEM 


II 


thin,  delicate  sheath  of  connective  tissue.  This  covering,  called 
the  sarcolemma,  is  so  transparent  that  the  structure  of  the  proto- 
plasm can  be  seen  through  it.  In  voluntary  and  in  heart  fibers 
the  jelly-like  contractile  substance,  when  seen  through  a  lens  of 
high  power,  is  striped  transversely  with  light  and  dark  bands. 
For  this  reason  these  muscles  are  known  as  striated  muscles,  while 
the  involuntary  muscles,  lacking  this  marking,  are  called  smooth 


FIG.  2.  Muscle-fibers,  striated,  n, 
nucleus,  a.  contractile  tissue. 
(From  Piersol.) 


FIG.  i.    Connective  tissue. 


or'unstriped  muscles.  The  fibers  of  voluntary  muscles  are  long 
and  thread-like,  their  length  being  from  10  to  100  times  their 
diameter.  The  protoplasm  of  these  fibers  contains  many  nuclei, 
which,  in  haman  muscle,  are  just  beneath  the  sarcolemma.  The 
fibers  lie  parallel  to  one  another  in  bundles  of  various  sizes  and 
lengths.  Several  small  bundles  are  bound  up  by  connective  tissue 
into  a  larger  bundle,  and  several  of  these  are  enclosed  in  a  sheath 
to  form  a  muscle. 

The  involuntary  fibers  are  found  in  the  stomach,  intestines, 
arteries,  veins,  and  other  tubular  organs.  They  are  spindle- 
shaped,  being  about  five  to  ten  times  as  long  as  their  diameter. 


12  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

There  is  a  single  nucleus  in  each  fiber,  very  large,  and  centrally 
placed.  The  usual  arrangement  of  the  fibers  includes  a  longi- 
tudinal layer  and  a  circular  layer,  the  latter  being  much  the 
stronger. 

Heart  fibers  differ  most  noticeably  from  the  voluntary  in 
being  composed  of  short  cells  joined  end  to  end.  They  also  have 
branches  connecting  the  different  fibers.  Each  cell  contains  a 
single  large  nucleus. 


FIG.    4.      Muscle    fibers    of    heart. 
(From  Piersol.) 

FIG.  3.     Involuntary  muscle-fibers. 
(From  Piersol.) 


The  nervous  system  consists  of  the  central  and  peripheral 
portions.  The  central  portion  is  further  divided  into  the  brain, 
medulla,  and  spinal  cord,  and  the  brain  still  further  divided  into 
cerebrum,  cerebellum,  and  basal  ganglia.  The  peripheral  portion 
includes  the  sympathetic  system,  lying  within  the  body  cavity,  and 
the  spinal  and  cranial  nerves,  distributed  throughout  the  tissues 
of  the  body.  These  parts  of  the  nervous  system  are  all  intimately 
connected,  and  have  no  sharply  marked  boundaries  separating 
them. 

The  characteristic  properties. of  the  nervous  system  are  due 
to  the  presence  of  gray  nervous  tissue.  This  tissue  is  jelly-like 


THE    NEURO-MUSCULAR    SYSTEM  13 

and  semi-transparent,  and,  like  other  forms  of  living  protoplasm 
in  the  body,  owes  its  permanence  of  form  to  connective  tissue. 

The  structural  unit  of  the  nervous  system  is  the  nerve-cell, 
or  neurone,  which  consists  of  a  minute  portion  of  gray  matter, 
the  cell-body,  together  with  all  its  branches  or  processes.  When 
these  processes  are  long  they  are  called  nerve-fibers.  (Fig.  5,  a.) 
The  supporting  tissue  of  the  nervous  system  has  two  distinct 


FIG.  5.    A  nerve  cell,    a,  axone.     (From  Howell.) 

forms  of  arrangement.  In  the  central  portion  it  is  in  the  form 
of  a  fine  network  enclosing  and  supporting  the  nervous  tissue ; 
this  is  called  the  neuroglia.  In  the  peripheral  portion  each  in- 
dividual cell  and  fiber  is  enveloped  in  a  delicate  sheath  called  the 
neurilemma.  Some  fibers  have  within  the  neurilemma  a  white 
fatty  coat  known  as  the  medullary  sheath.  These  are  called 
medullated  fibers,  and  those  without  it  are  called  non-medullated 
fibers.  The  central  thread  of  gray  nervous  tissue  in  each  nerve- 
fiber  is  called  the  axis-cylinder.  It  appears  in  a  cross  section  of 


14  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

a  nerve-fiber  as  a  dark  round  dot  in  the  center.  The  cell-body 
contains  the  nucleus,  and  is  the  vital  center  of  the  nerve-cell. 
When  a  fiber  is  severed,  the  part  cut  off  from  the  cell-body  dies, 
or  degenerates,  while  the  part  joined  to  the  cell-body  may  still 
live.  The  dead  fiber  is  sometimes  replaced  by  new  tissue,  the  axis- 
cylinder  growing  out  again  from  the  end  of  the  uninjured  portion. 
The  principle  of  division  of  labor  is  illustrated  in  the  activi- 
ties of  a  single  neurone.  The  cell-body  with  its  nucleus  serves  as 
a  reservoir  of  food  material  and  presides  over  the  nutrition  and 


Fie.  6.  Nerve-fiber,  n,  neurilem- 
ma.  in,  medullary  sheath,  a, 
axis-cylinder.  (From  Piersol.) 


FIG.  7.  Motor  end-plate  in  mus- 
cle, in.  contractile  tissue;  n, 
axis-cylinder.  (From  Piersol.) 


growth  of  the  whole  neurone,  even  to  the  ends  of  the  longest 
fibers.  The  fibers  carry  messages.  That  which  passes  along  the 
fiber  is  called  an  impulse,  and  may  be  thought  of  as  a  wave  of 
energy  or  excitement.  Impulses  travel  on  the  nerve  fibers  of  man 
at  the  rate  of  30  meters  per  second.  The  ends  of  some  fibers  are 
developed  into  special  organs  for  receiving  impressions ;  the  ends 
of  others  have  special  organs  for  transmitting  messages  to  other 
structures.  Fibers  that  carry  messages  from  the  ending  to  the 
cell-body  are  called  dendrites;  those  that  carry  messages  out 
from  the  cell-body  are  called  axones.  Notice  that  the  terms  axoiie 


THE:    NEURO-MUSCULAR    SYSTEM  15 

and  dendrite  indicate  which  way  the  impulse  travels  with  respect 
to  the  cell-body  of  the  neurone  and  not  with  respect  to  the  nervous 
system  as  a  whole. 

The  muscular  and  nervous  systems  are  closely  related  in 
structure  as  well  as  in  function.  Every  voluntary  muscle  fiber,  as 
far  as  is  known,  is  joined  to  a  nerve  cell.  The  neurilemma  of  the 
connecting  nerve-fiber  is  continuous  with  the  sarcolemma  of  the 
muscle-fiber,  and  the  axis-cylinder  passes  within.  After  entering 
the  muscle-fiber  the  axis-cylinder  terminates  in  a  number  of  min- 
ute branches  that  spread  out  like  the  roots  of  a  tree.  In  this  way 
the  gray  tissue  of  the  nerve-cell  is  brought  into  close  proximity 
to  the  contractile  tissue  of  the  muscle-fiber.  This  particular  form 
of  nerve-ending,  although  very  much  like  the  endings  in  other 
parts,  is  called  the  motor  end-plate.  (Fig.  7.)  The  terminations 
of  fibers  in  other  parts  are  usually  called  end-brushes,  or  brush- 
endings. 

Many  functions  and  properties  of  muscle  are  studied  by  the 
use  of  an  instrument  called  the  myograph.  The  essential  parts  of 
this  instrument  are  (i)  a  standard  supporting  a  clamp  for  sus- 
pending a  muscle,  (2)  a  small  scale-pan  that  can  be  attached  by 
a  hook  to  the  other  end  of  the  muscle,  and  several  metal  weights 
of  two  or  three  grams  each,  (3)  a  light  pointer  connected  with 
the  moving  end  of  the  muscle,  and  hinged  so  as  to  swing  in  a 
vertical  plane  and  magnify  the  movement  made  by  the  muscle, 
(4)  a  moving  surface  upon  which  the  end  of  the  pointer  can 
record  the  movements.  The  most  common  recording  instrument 
used  in  physiological  work  is  the  kymograph,  which  consists  of 
a  cylindrical  drum  revolved  at  a  uniform  rate  by  means  of  clock- 
work. A  piece  of  paper  with  a  glossy  surface  is  drawn  tightly 
around  the  drum  and  then  coated  with  lamp-black  over  a  flame. 
This  takes  an  impression  very  readily,  and  the  latter  can  be  made 
permanent  by  dipping  the  paper  in  an  emulsion  of  shellac. 

The  muscles  of  cold-blooded  animals  are  used  in  laboratory 
experiments  of  this  character,  because  they  retain  their  vitality  for 
a  considerable  time  after  removal  from  the  body  if  suitable  con- 
ditions of  temperature  and  moisture  are  maintained.  On  account 


i6 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


of  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  captured  and  kept,  frogs  are 
commonly  used.  A  frog  is  killed,  and  the  muscle  of  the  calf  of 
the  leg  is  dissected  out.  A  portion  of  the  femur  is  left  attached  to 


FIG.  8.     Myograph. 
c,  clamp;  d,  drum; 
m,  muscle;  n, 
nerve. 
(From  Howell.) 


the  muscle,  for  attachment  to  the  clamp  mentioned  above.  In 
some  experiments  a  portion  of  the  nerve  supplying  the  muscle 
is  dissected  out  with  it,  care  being  taken  to  leave  it  uninjured. 
In  this  case  we  have  what  is  called  a  nerve-muscle  preparation. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  such  a  nerve  is  a  bundle  of  nerve- 
fibers,  some  of  which  join  the  individual  muscle-fibers  of  the 
muscle. 

If  we  set  up  the  myograph,  with  a  nerve-muscle  preparation 
in  place,  we  can  cause  the  muscle  to  contract  by  (i)  pinching 
the  muscle  with  fine  forceps,  piercing  it  with  a  needle,  giving  it 
a  shock  from  an  induction  coil,  or  by  applying  a  heated  point  or 
a  drop  of  acid  to  its  surface;  or  by  (2)  treating  the  nerve  in  the 
same  way. 


THE    NEURO-MUSCULAR   SYSTEM  1 7 

The  experiments  illustrate  two  fundamental  properties  of 
muscle :  irritability  and  contractility.  By  irritability  is  meant  the 
ability  to  be  thrown  into  a  state  of  activity  by  a  sudden  change 
of  outside  conditions.  When  thus  influenced  a  muscle  is  said  to 
be  irritated,  excited,  or  stimulated.  The  exciting  cause  is  called 
an  irritation  or  stimulus.  By  contractility  is  meant  the.  ability  to 
change  its  form  when  irritated.  The  contraction  of  a  muscle  con- 
sists in  the  shortening  and  thickening  of  its  individual  muscle- 


Nerve 
trunk. 


Nerve 
fiber. 


Motor 
end-plate. 


Muscle 
fibers. 


Sensory 
fibers. 


,,,uaO^i-^ ••••'•••  •"•  "••'•-—-•-    -,;-••      •>•-. 

FIG.  9.     Distribution  of  motor  nerve-fibers  in  muscle.     (From  Landois.) 


fibers,  by  which  the  ends  of  the  muscle  are  brought  nearer  to- 
gether with  considerable  force.  The  lateral  stretching  of  the  con- 
nective tissue  of  the  muscle  makes  the  latter  harden  as  it  con- 
tracts. The  return  to  the  quiet  condition  is  called  relaxation. 

The  explanation  of  irritation  and  contraction  involves  micro- 
scopic and  chemical  experiments  that  cannot  well  be  given  in  this 
course.  In  such  experiments  it  is  shown  that  muscular  tissue, 
like  other  forms  of  living  protoplasm,  is  at  all  times  in  a  state 
of  chemical  activity.  This  chemical  activity  is  a  double  process, 
including  (i)  a  constructive  process,  in  which  tissue  is  built  up 


1 8  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

and  energy  stored,  and  (2)  a  destructive  process,  in  which  tissue 
is  torn  down,  energy  set  free,  and  waste  products  formed.  In  the 
constructive  process  there  are  prepared  highly  inflammable  com- 
pounds of  carbon,  oxygen,  etc.  In  the  destructive  changes  these 
are  burned.  When  the  muscle  is  at  rest,  the  energy  set  free  by 
these  changes  is  slight,  and  in  the  form  of  heat  only ;  when  the 
muscle  is  irritated,  there  occurs  a  very  sudden  and  comparatively 
violent  chemical  activity  that  may  be  called  an  explosion,  setting 
free  a  great  amount  of  energy,  a  part  of  which  is  in  the  form 
of  mechanical  motion.  The  waste  products  are  principally  carbon 
dioxide  and  water,  with  minute  quantities  of  organic  poison. 

No  amount  nor  intensity  of  stimulation  will  cause  the  nerve 
to  contract ;  in  other  words,  gray  nervous  tissue  is  wholly  lacking 
in  contractility,  but  makes  up  for  the  lack  by  its  remarkable  irri- 
tability. It  is  of  all  tissues  the  most  susceptible  to  outside  influ- 
ences. The  explanation  of  the  irritability  of  nervous  tissues  is 
the  same  as  that  of  muscle  tissue,  but  the  amount  of  chemical 
change  as  shown  by  the  quantity  of  waste  products  is  much  less 
in  the  case  of  the  former.  That  which  passes  along  the  fiber  is 
called  an  impulse.  When  an  impulse  passes  down  a  fiber  whose 
axis-cylinder  enters  a  muscle-fiber,  the  end-plate  is  able  to  trans- 
mit the  irritable  condition  to  the  muscle  substance,  and  a  contrac- 
tion results.  The  contraction  may  be  even  greater  than  when  the 
muscle  is  itself  irritated. 

The  question  may  arise  whether  it  is  the  muscle  substance 
that  is  irritated  when  we  pinch  or  shock  a  muscle,  or  whether  it 
is  the  nerve-fibres  scattered  through  it  which  are  first  influenced. 
This  can  be  determined  by  the  aid  of  a  drug  called  curari.  When 
curari  is  injected  into  the  blood  of  a  living  animal  it  paralyzes 
all  the  motor  end-plates,  and  thus  cuts  off  all  communication  be- 
tween the  nervous  and  muscular  systems.  But  the  muscles  of 
animals  so  treated,  while  powerless  to  move  by  their  own  volition, 
may  be  made  to  contract  by  external  irritation  as  well  as  under 
normal  conditions.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  then,  that  muscular 
tissue  is  itself  irritable. 

For  the  purposes  of  experiment,  the  current  from  an  induc- 
tion coil  is  better  than  the  other  forms  of  stimulation  mentioned, 


THE:    NEURO-MUSCULAR    SYSTEM  19 

because  it  is  more  easily  and  accurately  applied,  and  also  because 
it  causes  the  greatest  contraction  of  any  with  least  injury  to  the 
tissues  to  which  it  is  applied.  A  common  companion  piece  of  the 
myograph  is  therefore  a  battery  connected  to  the  primary  circuit 
of  an  induction  coil,  with  a  key  or  other  means  of  opening  and 
closing  at  will,  while  the  muscle  or  nerve  is  introduced  between 
the  terminals  of  the  secondary  circuit.  Where  a  repeated  stimu- 
lation at  regular  intervals  is  desired,  a  pendulum  is  often  intro- 
duced into  the  primary  circuit.  Several  devices  are  also  used  for 
the  same  purpose. 

In  order  to  study  the  effects  of  continuous  exercise  upon 
muscle,  we  stimulate  by  induction  shocks  of  uniform  strength  at 
regular  intervals  of  about  one  second,  and  observe  the  resulting 
tracing  on  the  drum  of  the  kymograph.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
the  stimulus  is  constant  and  that  the  muscle  is  kept  moist  with 
normal  salt  solution.  The  tracing,  which  is  called  the  "curve" 
of  the  muscle,  is  a  very  accurate  record,  enabling  us  to  notice 
very  minute  changes  in  the  frequency,  height,  or  character  of  the 
movements.  We  notice  (i)  the  almost  perfect  regularity  with 
which  the  muscle  responds  to  the  stimulus,  and  the  uniform  height 
of  the  contractions.  After  a  short  time  there  is  seen  (2)  a  gradual 
and  uniform  decrease  in  the  height,  indicating  a  corresponding 
loss  of  contractile  power  resulting  from  the  work.  Accompany- 
ing this  it  may  be  observed  that  the  records  of  the  individual  con- 
tractions become  broader  at  the  top,  showing  that  relaxation  is 
slower.  It  may  become  so  slow  that  the  muscle  does  not  have 
time  to  relax  fully  between  the  contractions.  The  height  of  the 
contractions  keeps  on  diminishing  until  finally  they  cease  entirely. 
The  gradual  loss  of  power  which  always  follows  work  is  called 
fatigue,  while  the  final  stage  is  known  as  exhaustion. 

If  the  intervals  between  successive  stimulations  of  a  muscle 
are  several  seconds  in  length,  not  only  is  the  relaxation  complete, 
but  there  is  almost  complete  recovery  from  fatigue,  so  that  the 
contractions  are  of  practically  the  same  height  for  some  time.  By 
making  long  intervals  we  are  therefore  enabled  to  eliminate  the 
element  of  fatigue  and  study  the  effects  of  changing  the  load, 
the  temperature,  the  strength  of  stimulus,  etc. 


20  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

If  we  begin  with  no  weights  in  the  scale-pan  and  add  one 
during  each  interval,  we  obtain  a  record  of  changes  in  height  of 
contraction  due  to  change  of  load.  We  find  that  the  muscle  con- 
tracts highest  when  a  small  weight  is  used,  then  gradually  dim- 
inishes until  the  load  is  reached  that  it  is  unable  to  lift.  The  work 
done  in  each  case  is  found  by  multiplying  the  weight  by  the  height. 
The  muscle  will  be  found  to  do  the  greatest  amount  of  work 
neither  with  the  smallest  nor  greatest  load,  but  with  somewhat 
more  than  half  it  can  lift. 

The  strength  of  stimulus  is  varied  either  by  varying  the  re- 
sistance in  the  primary  circuit  or  by  varying  the  distance  between 
the  primary  and  secondary  coils.  Beginning  with  a  current  too 
small  to  produce  a  contraction,  we  gradually  increase  it.  The 
height  of  contraction  increases  with  the  increased  stimulus  until 
a  certain  point  is  reached,  when  it  becomes  stationary,  and  no 
amount  of  increase  in  strength  of  current  will  make  it  contract 
higher.  On -the  contrary,  a  stimulus  stronger  than  is  necessary 
makes  relaxation  slower, — a  condition  which,  in  the  body,  tends 
to  stiffness  and  awkwardness  of  movement. 

By  gradually  increasing  the  rapidity  of  stimulation  a  point 
is  reached,  when  the  intervals  are  about  one-tenth  of  a  second, 
where  no  relaxation  occurs,  the  muscle  remaining  in  a  state  of 
contraction  until  exhausted.  This  kind  of  stimulation  is  called 
tetanic,  and  the  contracted  condition  is  known  as  tetanus.  The 
stimulus  given  to  the  muscles  from  the  central  nervous  system  is 
tetanic,  the  rate  being  variable  in  different  muscles  from  30  to 
1 20  per  second. 

We  have  seen  in  the  preceding  experiments  that  a  muscle, 
removed  from  the  body  and  separated  from  the  central  nervous 
system,  remains  in  a  state  of  rest  unless  stimulated  by  some  out- 
side force.  It  has  frequently  been  shown  by  cases  of  bodily  in- 
jury and  by  experiments  upon  living  animals  that  muscles  whose 
nerves  are  severed  no  longer  perform  their  normal  function,  but 
waste  away,  unless  the  nerve  reunites.  We  are  therefore  justified 
in  concluding  that,  normally,  voluntary  muscles  do  not  act  auto- 
matically nor  by  direct  influence  of  the  will,  but  only  in  response 
to  impulses  sent  to  them  from  the  central  nervous  system.  A 


THE    NEURO-MUSCULAR    SYSTEM  21 

search  for  the  origin  of  these  impulses  requires  a  study  of  the 
structure  of  the  spinal  cord  and  the  spinal  nerves. 

The  spinal  cord  is  a  cylindrical  column  about  18  inches  in 
length  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  lodged  in  the  neural  canal 
in  the  backbone.  It  consists  of  a  vast  number  of  neurones,  along 
with  the  supporting  tissues  and  the  blood  and  lymph  vessels.  The 
cord  is  cleft  deeply  lengthwise  by  two  fissures :  the  anterior  and 
posterior  median  fissures.  They  divide  the  cord  into  its  right 
and  left  halves.  The  fissures  serve  as  a  convenient  guide  to  the 
study  of  the  cord,  since  the  anterior  fissure  is  always  an  open  one 
and  the  posterior  fissure  is  always  closed,  making  it  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish directions.  Cross  sections  of  the  cord  show  two  distinct 
portions :  an  inner  or  gray  portion  and  an  outer  or  white  portion. 
The  gray  portion  is  wholly  enclosed  within  the  white  portion, 
and  its  cross  section  is  shaped  roughly  like  a  capital  H.  The 
four  extremities  of  the  H  are  evidently  cross  sections  of  four 
ridges  or  columns  extending  up  and  down  within  the  cord.  The 
cross  bar  of  the  H  is  called  the  commissure,  and  is  the  path  of 
fibers  crossing  from  one  side  to  the  other.  Microscopic  study 
shows  that  the  inner  or  gray  part  of  the  cord  is  composed  of  cell- 
bodies  and  uncovered  fibers'.  Some  of  these  fibers  are  the  dend- 
rites  of  the  cell-bodies  that  lie  among  them ;  some  are  the  axones 
of  the  same  cell-bodies ;  some  are  the  terminal  endings  of  the 
axones  of  distant  cell-bodies.  The  fibers  form  a  jungle-like  net- 
work, having  cell-bodies  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  scattered 
through  it.  Here  the  neurones  are  able  to  influence  one  another, 
since  they  are  without  coverings  and  lie  close  together. 

The  outer  or  white  portion  of  the  cord  is  composed  mainly 
of  medullated  nerve  fibers,  the  greater  number  of  them  extending 
vertically  or  lengthwise  of  the  cord.  When  looking  at  a  cross 
section  of  the  cord  in  a  microscope  we  see  these  fibers  in  cross 
section,  each  appearing  as  a  circle  with  a  dot  in  the  center;  the 
dot  is  the  central  nerve  thread ;  the  circle  is  the  neurilemma ; 
within  the  circle  is  the  transparent  medullary  sheath.  A  smaller 
number  of  fibers  can  be  seen  to  pass  across  the  white  part  of  the 
cord  from  the  gray  to  the  outside  where  the  nerves  join  it. 


22 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


The  spinal  nerves  pass  out  from  the  spinal  cord  in  pairs,  one 
pair  at  the  junction  of  each  two  vertebrae;  one  nerve  passes  out  to 
the  right  and  its  mate  to  the  left.  Each  nerve  joins  the  cord  by 
two  roots :  one  opposite  the  anterior  gray  column  and  called  the 


FIG,  10.  The  spinal  cord  and  nerve  roots. 


anterior  root,  and  the  other  opposite  the  posterior  gray  column 
and  called  the  posterior  root.  (Fig.  10.)  The  two  roots  join  before 
they  leave  the  spinal  canal  to  form  the  nerve;  just  before  they 
join  the  posterior  root  has  an  enlargement  on  it  that  is  called  the 
spinal  ganglion.  The  four  roots  and  the  two  fissures  divide  the 


THE    NEURO-MUSCULAR   SYSTEM  23 

white  part  of  the  cord  into  six  columns  that  extend  its  whole 
length :  two  posterior,  two  anterior,  and  two  lateral. 

The  brain,  lying  within  the  skull,  includes  the  cerebrum,  the 
cerebellum,  and  the  basal  ganglia.  The  medulla,  or  bulb,  about 
two  inches  in  length,  joins  the  brain  and  cord.  The  cerebrum 
and  the  cerebellum  have  the  gray  part  on  the  outside,  forming  a 
layer  called  the  cortex.  The  area  of  the  cortex  is  greatly  in- 
creased by  deep  folds  called  convolutions.  (Fig.  n.)  Passing 
inward  from  the  cortex  are  medullated  fibers  forming  the  white 
portion.  Among  the  bundles  of  nerve  fibers  are  large  masses  of 
nerve  cells,  called  the  basal  ganglia. 


FIG.  ii.     Motor  area  of  cortex. 

The  nervous  system,  considered  as  to  its  internal  structure 
and  its  activities,  consists  of  four  systems  of  neurones :  motor, 
sensory,  association,  and  sympathetic.  The  motor  neurones  have 
their  cell-bodies  in  the  central  nervous  system  with  fibers  passing 
outward ;  the  sensory  neurones  have  their  cell-bodies  just  outside 
of  the  central  nervous  system  with  fibers  passing  both  outward  and 
inward;  the  association  neurones  are  wholly  within  the  central 
system ;  the  sympathetic  neurones  are  entirely  without  the  central 
system. 

The  motor  neurones  constitute  the  only  path  by  which  im- 
pulses can  be  sent  from  the  central  system  to  the  muscles;  the 
sensory  neurones  provide  the  only  path  over  which  stimuli  can 
enter  the  central  nervous  system  from  without;  the  association 


24  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

neurones  serve  the  purpose  of  maintaining-  a  system  of  communi- 
cation between  different  parts  of  the  central  nervous  system ;  the 
sympathetic  neurones  have  nothing  to  do  with  bodily  movements, 
directly,  and  hence  will  not  be  studied  farther  at  present. 

THE;  MOTOR  NEURONES 

The  cell-bodies  of  the  motor  neurones  are  situated  in  the 
anterior  gray  columns  of  the  spinal  cord,  forming  two  long  groups 
of  cells  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  cord.  From  each  of 
these  cell-bodies  arise  several  dendrites  that  may  extend  for  vary- 
ing distances  into  the  gray  part :  up,  down,  toward  the  posterior 
column,  or  through  the  commissure  to  the  other  side  of  the  cord. 
Through  these  uncovered  and  exceedingly  sensitive  dendrites  the 
motor  neurones  receive  their  stimuli. 

Each  motor  neurone  has  a  single  axone.  From  the  cell-body 
the  axone  passes  outward  across  the  white  portion  of  the  cord, 
traverses  the  anterior  root  of  a  spinal  nerve  to  its  junction  with 
the  posterior  root  and  then  follows  the  nerve  and  its  branches  to 
its  termination  in  a  muscle. 

The  fibers  of  voluntary  muscle  can  contract  only  when  each 
receives  a  separate  stimulus,  because  the  protoplasm  of  each  is 
completely  isolated  from  the  others  by  the  sarcolemma.  It  fol- 
lows that  every  muscle  fiber  must  have  its  own  nerve  fiber,  and 
that  these  nerve  fibers  must  be  so  insulated  from  one  another  that 
no  impulse  can  jump  across  from  one  to  another  in  the  nerve, 
where  they  lie  close  together  for  long  distances.  To  accomplish 
this  insulation  each  fiber  takes  on  a  medullary  sheath  as  soon  as 
it  leaves  the  gray  part  of  the  cord,  and  soon  after,  before  it  enters 
the  anterior  root,  the  neurilemma  begins.  Many  of  the  axones 
branch  before  they  terminate,  so  that  one  of  them  can  supply  sev- 
eral muscle  fibers.  It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  over  a 
million  muscle  fibers  in  the  body,  and  400,000  motor  axones  have 
been  counted  in  all  the  anterior  roots  of  a  subject.  The  motor 
axones  enter  a  muscle  along  with  sensory  fibers,  forming  a  mixed 
nerve ;  the  nerve  divides  on  entering  the  muscle,  and  the  various 
branches  go  to  different  parts ;  each  motor  fiber  finally  terminates 


THE:    NEURO-MUSCULAR    SYSTEM  25 

in  a  muscle  fiber  with  an  ending  like  the  one  shown  in  Figs.  7 
and  9.  The  office  of  this  ending  is  to  transmit  to  the  muscle 
protoplasm  the  impulse  sent  from  the  cell-body,  far  away  in  the 
spinal  cord.  This  is  the  only  function  of  a  motor  neurone ;  under 
normal  conditions  it  never  carries  an  impulse  the  other  way. 

THE:  SENSORY  NEURONES 

The  cell-bodies  of  the  sensory  neurones  are  situated  in  the 
enlargements  or  ganglia  on  the  posterior  roots  of  the  cranial  and 
spinal  nerves.  Each  sensory  cell  has  one  axone  that  shortly 
divides  into  two  (Figs.  12,  13,  14,  15).  One  of  these  branches 
serves  as  a  dendrite ;  it  passes  out  along  the  nerve  and  its  branches 
to  its  place  of  termination  somewhere  in  the  tissues,  where  it  has 
an  end-organ  specially  developed  for  receiving  stimuli.  There 
are  in  each  individual  anywhere  from  half  a  million  to  a  million 
and  a  half  of  these  sensory  dendrites  extending  out  from  the 
ganglia  to  the  tissues  of  all  parts  of  the  body.  They  are  most 
numerous  of  all  in  the  skin.  They  terminate  in  endings  of  various 
forms,  some  simple  and  some  more  complex,  in  the  skin,  bones, 
tendons,  muscles,  etc.  Endings  near  the  surface  serve  as  organs 
of  touch,  taste,  temperature,  etc.,  while  those  in  muscles  and 
tendons  make  us  aware  of  the  extent  and  force  of  our  muscular 
contractions  and  the  positions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 
All  the  influences  that  come  to  us  from  the  outside  world  must 
come  in  through  these  sensory  neurones. 

The  second  branch  of  each  sensory  neurone  extends  from 
the  ganglion  along  the  posterior  root  to  the  spinal  cord  (Figs.  12, 
13,  14,  15).  Penetrating  the  posterior  column  of  the  white  part 
of  the  cord,  it  divides  into  an  ascending  and  a  descending  branch. 
These  two  branches  extend  vertically  for  a  greater  or  less  distance 
in  the  posterior  white  column,  giving  off  at  intervals  horizontal 
branches  that  penetrate  the  gray  part  of  the  cord  and  end  in 
brush-like  terminations  among  the  cell-bodies  and  dendrites  there. 
The  sensory  brush-endings  frequently  intertwine  with  similar  end- 
ings of  dendrites,  forming  what  are  called  synapses,  supposed  to 
be  the  places  where  one  neurone  transmits  its  impulse  to  another. 


26 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


FIG.  12.  A  section  of  the  spinal 
cord,  showing  a  sensory  neu- 
rone on  the  right  and  several 
motor  cells  on  the  left. 

The  ascending  branches  are  of  various  lengths.  The  greater 
number  of  them  extend  no  further  from  the  point  of  division  than 
the  width  of  one  or  two  vertebrae ;  the  longest  of  them  extend  up 
as  far  as  the  medulla,  which  joins  the  cord  with  the  brain;  some 
are  of  intermediate  length.  The  horizontal  branches  are  of  vari- 
ous lengths.  Some  pass  directly  to  the  anterior  gray  columns,  to 


THK    NEURO-MUSCUI.AR    SYSTEM 


FIG.  13.    Sensory  paths  in  the  central  system.    (From  Howell.) 


form  synapses  with  motor  dendrites ;  some  end  near  the  commis- 
sure; some  penetrate  the  gray  matter  but  a  slight  distance.  None 
cross  the  opposite  side  of  the  cord  or  go  up  to  the  brain. 

Since  the  sensory  neurones  can  communicate  directly  with 
motor  neurones,  it  is  possible  for  the  stimulation  of  sensory  end- 
ings to  give  rise  to  muscular  movements.  Such  movements,  when 
they  take  place  without  the  intervention  of  the  will,  are  called 
reflex  movements  or  reflexes.  Since  each  sensory  neurone  has 
brush-endings  in  different  levels  of  the  cord,  stimulation  of  one 
sensory  ending  may  give  rise  to  contraction  of  several  muscles. 


28  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

THE  ASSOCIATION  NEURONES 

These  neurones  lie  wholly  within  the  central  nervous  system. 
Their  cell-bodies  are  seen  in  the  gray  part  of  all  levels  of  the 
spinal  cord  and  brain.  They  are  by  far  the  most  numerous  class 
of  neurones  in  man,  including  a  large  percentage  of  those  in  the 
spinal  cord  and  practically  all  of  those  in  the  brain.  The  superiority 
of  man  over  lower  forms  of  vertebrate  life  is  indicated  by  the 
greater  development  of  this  class  of  neurones.  Their  office  is  to 
maintain  the  most  complete  communication  between  all  parts.  They 
are  best  studied  in  separate  groups,  of  which  there  are  many, 
each  with  its  peculiarities  of  form,  location,  and  office. 

One  important  group  serves  to  make  more  complete  and  inti- 
mate communication  between  the  sensory  and  motor  neurones  of 
the  cord.  (Fig.  14.)  Their  cell-bodies  are  seen  near  the  middle 
of  the  gray  part  of  the  cord  at  all  levels ;  their  axones  pass  out 
into"  the  white  columns,  where  they  divide  into  ascending  and 
descending  branches  which  pass  up  and  down  and  give  off  hori- 
zontal branches  like  the  sensory  axones.  Some  of  the  cell-bodies 
send  their  axones  across  the  commissure,  where  they  divide  and 
terminate  in  the  same  way  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  cord.  Some 
of  the  ascending  and  descending  branches  extend  past  several 
vertebrae,  and  they  make  so  complete  a  communication  between 
the  sensory  and  motor  neurones  that  a  stimulation  of  a  single  point 
on  the  skin  may  give  rise  to  a  contraction  of  all  the  muscles  of 
the  body  at  the  same  time.  This  often  happens  in  such  instances 
as  the  sting  of  an  insect,  the  unexpected  discharge  of  a  gun,  or 
even  less  violent  stimuli. 

Another  group  of  association  neurones  whose  cell-bodies  form 
two  ganglia  in  the  medulla  that  are  known  as  the  ''nuclei  of  Goll 
and  Burdach"  receive  stimuli  from  the  long  ascending  branches 
of  the  sensory  neurones  and  convey  them  up  to  the  cortex  of  the 
cerebrum,  where  they  give  rise  to  sensations.  Sensory  impulses 
may  reach  the  seat  of  consciousness  by  other  paths,  but  this  is  the 
simplest  and  most  direct  sensory  path  to  the  brain.  (See  Fig.  13.) 

Another  group  of  association  neurones  affords  a  path  for 
sensory  impulses  to  reach  the  cerebellum,  which  has  something 


THE    NEURO-MUSCULAR   SYSTEM  29 

to  do  with  the  coordination  of  complex  movements,  especially 
those  involving  the  poise  of  the  whole  body.  The  cell-bodies  of 
this  group  form  a  column  extending  up  and  down  the  cord  just 
posterior  to  the  center  of  the  gray  part,  and  known  as  the  "column 


FIG.  14.  Association  neurone  of 
cord  in  the  middle  sensory  at 
the  right  and  motor  at  the  left. 

of  Clarke".  The  axones  pass  out  into  the  lateral  white  column 
and  there  turn  and  pass  upward  in  a  bundle  known  as  the  "direct 
cerebellar  tract"  to  the  brain. 

A  fourth  group  of  neurones,  called  the  "pyramidal  cells", 
serve  as  a  connection  between  the  will  and  the  muscles  in  the  vol- 
untary control  of  muscular  movements.  The  cell-bodies  are  situ- 


30  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

ated  in  the  cortex  of  the  cerebrum  along  the  top  and  sides,  group- 
ed around  an  important  convolution  known  as  the  "fissure  of  Ro- 
lando/' (see  Fig.  n)  ;  axones  pass  down  the  cord  to  various 
levels  and  terminate  in  the  gray  matter,  forming  synapses  with 
the  cells  of  the  cord.  This  group  of  axones  pass  down  in  the 
lateral  columns  of  the  white  matter  and  form  a  bundle  called  the 
"pyramidal  tract".  They  terminate  at  some  distance  from  the 
motor  columns  and  hence  it  is  likely  that  they  act  on  the  motor 
neurones  mainly  through  association  neurones  of  the  first  variety. 
(SeePyr.  Fig.  15.) 

Association  neurones  lying  wholly  within  the  brain  connect 
different  areas  of  the  cortex,  forming  the  paths  of  nerve  impulses 
that  accompany  mental  processes. 

The  regulation  and  control  of  muscular  movements  so  as  to 
make  them  useful  is  called  coordination.  This  involves  the  distri- 
bution of  nerve  impulses  so  as  to  cause  contraction  of  some 
muscles  and  inhibition  of  the  action  of  others. 

We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  a  nerve  impulse  as  a  form  of 
energy  that  can  stimulate  muscles  to  action ;  now  we  must  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  a  nerve  impulse  may  inhibit  a  muscle  from  act- 
ing. The  central  nervous  system  is  constantly  receiving  thousands 
of  stimuli  from  the  great  number  of  sensory  endings  in  the  skin 
and  other  tissues ;  any  one  of  these  impulses  may  spread  to  all  the 
muscles ;  if  there  were  no  means  of  suppressing  reflex  movements 
all  of  the  muscles  would  be  stimulated  to  action  all  of  the  time, 
making  useful  movement  impossible.  It  has  been  conclusively 
shown  that  whenever  a  group  of  muscles  is  stimulated  to  contract, 
other  muscles,  the  antagonists  of  the  former,  relax  because  of  the 
reflex  effect  of  the  contraction.  For  example,  a  vigorous  contrac- 
tion of  the  biceps  is  normally  accompanied  by  relaxation  of  the 
triceps ;  not  a  passive  failure  to  act,  but  actual  inhibition,  involving 
a  condition  of  diminished  tone  as  compared  with  the  resting  con- 
dition. This  is  essential  to  perfect  and  graceful  movement  of  the 
body,  and  persons  who  lack  it  are  called  awkward.  It  is  essential 
to  the  utilizing  of  all  the  strength  of  the  muscles ;  if  one  has,  in 
closing  the  hand,  to  overcome  a  resistance  due  to  the  normal  tone 
or  a  more  active  contraction  of  the  extensors,  power  of  contrac- 


THE;  NEURO-MUSCUI.VAR  SYSTEM  31 

tion  is  wasted  and  the  machine  is  not  economical.  Normally  the 
contraction  of  any  muscle,  by  stimulating  nerve  endings  of  the 
"muscular  sense"  variety  contained  within  the  muscle,  starts  an 
impulse  which  acts  reflexly  to  inhibit  the  muscles  antagonizing  the 
movement. 

Stimulation  takes  place  normally  at  every  sensory  end  organ, 
synapse,  and  motor  ending  in  muscle  or  gland,  but  inhibition  prob- 
ably takes  place  only  at  a  synapse.  The  reason  why  a  nerve  im- 
pulse sometimes  results  in  stimulation  and  sometimes  inhibition  is 
probably  not  because  of  any  difference  in  nerve  impulses  but  be- 
cause of  a  difference  in  the  transmitting  brush-endings,  some  of 
them  being  capable  of  stimulating  the  neighboring  receptive  end- 
ings and  others  being  able  to  inhibit  them.  A  sensory  neurone,  for 
example,  may  have  some  of  its  transmitting  brush-like  endings  in 
the  cord  of  the  stimulating  variety  and  some  of  them  of  the  in- 
hibiting variety;  in  this  way  it  may  produce  coordinated  move- 
ment by  stimulating  some  motor  neurones  while  it  inhibits  others. 
Association  neurones  probably  have  both  kinds  of  endings  also ; 
some  writers  assume  that  a  single  association  neurone  has  just  the 
right  stimulating  and  inhibiting  endings  to  control  the  muscles 
for  a  certain  movement,  and  thus  to  constitute  a  "master  neurone" 
for  that  movement.  This  is  an  interesting  hypothesis  and  has 
much  evidence  in  its  favor. 

REFLEX    MOVEMENTS 

Most  useful  movements  involve  the  strong  contraction  of  cer- 
tain muscles,  to  overcome  some  resistance;  the  milder  action  of 
other  muscles,  to  guide  the  movement  and  check  it  at  exactly  the 
right  time  and  place ;  and  the  complete  inhibition  of  other  muscles, 
whose  action  in  any  degree  would  hinder  the  performance.  As  an 
illustration,  take  the  raising  of  a  glass  of  water  to  the  lips  and 
drinking  it.  Accurate  correlation  of  all  the  muscles  involved  is 
plainly  essential  to  avoid  injuring  yourself  or  spilling  the  water. 
This  is  unconsciously  performed  as  a  reflex.  We  simply  will  to 
drink  the  water,  and  the  reflex  machinery  does  the  work.  This 
machinery  includes  sensory,  motor,  and  association  cells.  Sensory 


32  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

endings  in  joints,  tendons,  and  muscles  keep  sending  in  to  the 
central  nervous  system  impulses  that  serve  to  guide  the  action  of 
the  muscles,  and  impulses  arising  in  the  eye  may  aid  them;  the 
attention  may  be  directed  to  other  things  while  this  is  being  done. 
Most  of  the  useful  movements  of  every  day  life  are  much 
less  simple  than  the  one  just  used  as  an  illustration.  Walking, 
eating,  talking,  dressing,  etc.,  are  readily  seen  to  be  a  continuous 
series  of  simpler  reflexes  in  which  there  is  a  regular  or  irregular 
repetition  of  certain  simple  movements,  the  order  and  time  of  the 
movements  being  essential  as  well  as  the  form  of  each  separate 
movement.  The  reflex  machinery  is  the  same  as  in  the  simpler 
movements.  In  walking,  for  example,  when  we  lift  one  foot  and 
swing  it  forward  the  muscles  of  the  other  limb  contract  in  re- 
sponse to  sensory  impulses  received  from  the  sole  of  the  foot  and 
from  other  places  so  as  to  sustain  the  whole  weight  and  balance 
the  body ;  as  soon  as  the  free  limb  has  swung  far  enough  forward, 
impulses  set  up  in  it  act  again  on  the  supporting  limb  and  the 
weight  is  shifted  to  the  free  limb;  the  touching  of  this  foot  to  the 
ground  and  the  tension  on  joints,  ligaments,  and  muscles  as  the 
weight  is  placed  on  it,  in  turn  sets  up  other  impulses  which  cause 
the  raising  and  swinging  of  the  other  limb ;  this  continues  alter- 
nately as  long  as  we  will  to  go  on,  and  we  are  free  to  talk,  view 
the  scenery,  or  engage  in  other  occupations  while  this  is  being 
done.  Such  movements  are  sometimes  called  "automatic",  but 
the  point  of  chief  importance  is  that  they  consist  of  a  series  of 
reflexes,  each  in  the  chain  being  brought  about  in  its  time  by  im- 
pulses produced  by  the  preceding  reflex. 

VOLUNTARY  MOVEMENTS 

The  pyramidal  neurones  of  the  brain  form  the  connecting  link 
between  the  will  and  the  muscles ;  through  them  we  are  able  to 
control  the  reflex  movements  of  the  body  and  to  acquire  the  ability 
to  perform  new  ones.  The  pyramidal  neurones  whose  cell-bodies 
are  located  in  certain  places  on  the  surface  of  the  cerebrum  con- 
trol definite  muscle  groups,  so  that  the  so-called  "motor  area"  of 
the  cerebrum  has  been  minutely  mapped  out  into  the  areas  of  con- 


THE:   NEURO-MUSCULAR   SYSTEM 


33 


trol,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  (Fig.  n.)  Careful  stimulation  of 
the  cortex  gives  rise  to  coordinated  movements,  certain  muscles 
being  stimulated  to  just  the  proper  degree  and  their  antagonists 
inhibited.  This  suggests  that  the  pyramidal  fibers  passing  down 
the  cord  have  some  stimulating  and  some  inhibiting  endings,  or 
else  that  they  act  through  association  neurones  with  both  kinds  of 
endings.  As  long  as  a  movement  is  purely  voluntary  it  is  not  very 


SPINAL  GANfrLION  CELL 


MU1TI  POLAR  CELL    | 
OF  ANT.  HORN-.... 


FIG.  15.    Diagram  to  show  paths  of  nerve  impulses  in 
reflex  and  voluntary  movement.    (From  Klein.) 


34  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

useful,  as  the  attention  must  be  given  to  it  all  the  time ;  but  such 
movements  rapidly  become  reflex  with  practice,  as  is  shown  in 
the  next  paragraph. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  REFLEX   MACHINERY 

In  the  earliest  stages  of  animal  life  the  neurones  are  merely 
round  globules  of  protoplasm,  each  containing  a  nucleus.  Gradu- 
ally the  axones  and  dendrites  grow  out,  and,  penetrating  the 
tissues  of  the  body,  finally  extend  to  the  places  of  termination.  As 
the  last  stages  of  their  growth  they  develop  the  endings  which  are 
to  serve  as  organs  of  reception  and  transmission,  and  take  on  their 
insulating  coverings.  Not  until  the  synapses  are  developed  can 
reflex  movement  take  place.  The  child  can  perform  some  reflexes 
at  birth,  including  swallowing,  breathing,  and  some  modifications 
of  the  latter,  such  as  coughing,  sneezing,  laughing,  and  crying. 
These  are  often  called  inherited  reflexes  to  distinguish  them  from 
reflexes  acquired  later,  but  the  distinction  is  neither  fundamental 
nor  important.  The  child  can  do  none  of  these  things  perfectly, 
and  because  of  this  fact  some  diseases,  notably  pneumonia  and 
croup,  are  more  often  fatal  in  the  child  than  in  the  adult,  the  child 
not  being  able  to  remove  mucous  from  the  bronchi  successfully  by 
coughing.  The  fact  that  the  child  can  do  these  things  at  birth 
shows  that  at  birth  the  machinery  of  these  reflexes,  including  the 
synapses,  is  complete  enough  to  make  a  coordinated  movement 
possible ;  practice  improves  the  performance.  In  such  reflexes  as 
walking  the  child  has  to  learn  by  successive  trials,  but  he  will  not 
be  able  to  try  nor  will  he  be  interested  in  trying  until  the  ma- 
chinery has  been  so  far  perfected  by  the  growth  of  the  neurones 
that  impulses  can  pass  the  proper  synapses.  By  continued  practice 
he  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  minute  fibrils  of  each  synapse 
until  the  reflex  is  perfect;  then  he  practices  more  complex  com- 
binations including  this  one  and  so  builds  up  a  remarkable  degree 
of  motor  ability. 

The  part  of  the  pyramidal  cells  in  this  process  is  important. 
Wnen  the  synapses  are  still  imperfect  and  the  movement  conse- 
quently not  well  done,  by  bringing  the  will  to  work  through  the 


THE    NEURO-MUSCULAR    SYSTEM  35 

pyramidal  cells,  one  stimulates  certain  dendrites  where  the  synapse 
is  not  complete  enough  to  give  a  full  stimulation  and  inhibits 
others  that  should  not  enter  in ;  by  this  process  the  development 
of  each  synapse  is  accelerated  or  retarded  so  as  to  bring  about  the 
right  coordination.  It  is  seen  here  that  we  secure  the  general 
growth  of  the  reflex  machinery  by  inherited  tendencies,  but  that 
the  final  touches,  giving  accuracy  and  ease  of  movement,  must  be 
secured  by  practice ;  practice  modifies  the  structure  by  its  influ- 
ence of  the  growth  of  the  terminations  of  the  neurones.  A  reflex, 
once  perfected,  becomes  a  unit,  which  can  be  used  as  a  part  of  a 
more  complex  reflex  just  as  a  simple  contraction  is  used.  These 
are  the  changes  in  the  nervous  system  that  underlie  the  formation 
of  habits ;  the  formation  of  a  habit  consists  essentially  in  the  de- 
velopment of  certain  nerve  paths  for  the  passage  of  impulses. 

There  is  an  inherited  order  in  the  development  of  neurones 
and  as  a  consequence,  in  the  development  of  reflexes  also.  Breath- 
ing, swallowing,  crying,  coughing,  and  other  reflexes  necessary  to 
maintain  life,  develop  first ;  coarse  movements  of  the  larger  joints 
come  next ;  walking  and  talking  are  perfected  only  after  several 
months  of  life;  finer  and  more  accurate  reflexes  come  still  later. 
This  inherited  order  of  development  is  believed  to  bear  a  relation 
to  the  order  of  development  of  the  race ;  reflexes  acquired  early 
in  the  history  of  the  race  developing  earlier  in  the  child  than  those 
which  the  race  acquired  at  a  later  period.  The  order  of  these 
reflexes  may  be  modified  by  practice,  but  experience  has  shown 
that  it  is  not  to  the  advantage  of  the  child  to  try  to  stimulate  the 
development  of  reflexes  before  their  time.  In  the  kindergarten, 
for  example,  it  is  found  that  some  fine  work  attempted  with  small 
children  was  begun  too  early;  in  schools  for  the  feeble  minded 
it  is  found  that  exercise  of  racially  old  and  relatively  simple  re- 
flexes, like  movements  of  hip  and  shoulder,  running  and  jumping, 
help  to  prepare  the  child  for  work  the  normal  child  can  do  but 
which  the  feeble  minded  child  is  unable  to  do.  These  racially  old 
and  mechanically  simpler  reflexes  have  been  named  "fundamental" 
to  distinguish  them  from  some  called  "accessory''  that  are  new  in 
racial  history  and  hence  can  be  developed  later.  For  example, 
walking,  throwing,  striking,  and  climbing  are  "fundamental" 


30  PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 

while    sewing,    writing,    and    playing    musical    instruments    are 
"accessory". 

Voluntary  and  reflex  movements  have  been  studied  by  the 
ergograph.  (Fig.  16.)  The  ergograph  is  an  instrument  for  re- 
cording the  movements  of  the  middle  finger,  which  is  flexed  and 
extended  voluntarily  at  regular  intervals,  lifting  a  weight  of  from 
two  to  ten  pounds.  It  consists  of  ( I )  a  clamp  or  other  device 
for  holding  the  arm  and  hand  firmly,  (2)  a  cord  passing  over  a 
pulley  and  connecting  the  finger  with  the  weight,  (3)  a  pointer 


FIG.  16.  Ergograph.  D,  drum  of  kymograph;  L,  loop  to  hold  finger; 
P,  pulley;  W,  weight;  R,  recording  pointer:  H,  supports  in  which 
rod  can  slide;  S,  spring. 

for  recording,  connected  to  the  finger  by  another  cord,  (4)  a  re- 
cording surface,  usually  a  kymograph.  The  weight  is  lifted  as 
high  as  possible  at  every  contraction,  and  the  work  is  continued 
until  the  weight  can  no  longer  be  lifted. 

The  curve  thus  obtained  has  irregularities  of  two  kinds. 
There  is  a  small  irregularity  in  the  heights  of  adjacent  contrac- 
tions, giving  the  appearance  of  a  partly  rythmical  rise  and  fall, 
and  a  more  general  irregularity  in  the  form  of  the  entire  curve, 
which  seldom  approaches  anywhere,  near  a  straight  line,  and  dif- 
fers remarkably  in  the  cases  of  different  individuals.  Since  the 
curve  of  muscle,  as  taken  with  the  myograph,  has  no  such  irregu- 


THE:  NEURO-MUSCULAR  SYSTEM  37 

larities,  these  must  be  attributed  to  the  nervous  mechanism  in- 
volved in  the  ergograph  work.  Lack  of  uniformity  in  height  of 
contraction  indicates  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  strength  of  stimuli 
received  by  the  muscles. 

The  irregular  form  of  the  ergograph  curve  is  partly  due  to 
mental  characteristics  of  the  individual  and  is  partly  the  effect  of 
outward  conditions.  The  general  health  and  strength  of  the 
muscles  and  the  nervous  system  will  determine  how  soon  fatigue 
will  become  exhausting,  but  the  general  form  of  the  curve,  indi- 
cating the  degree  of  fatigue  at  the  various  stages  of  the  work,  is 
determined  by  the  temperament  and  character  of  the  individual. 
Some  are  able  to  lift  the  weight  to  almost  the  full  height  as  long 
as  their  power  lasts,  but  give  out  completely  when  the  curve 
begins  to  fall.  Others  can  maintain  the  full  height  but  a  short 
time,  but  are  able  to  continue  the  work  for  hundreds  of  contrac- 
tions after  the  curve  has  diminished  to  half  or  one-third  of  its 
full  height. 

In  order  to  secure  uniform  rhythm,  the  contractions  are 
usually  made  to  correspond  to  the  beat  of  a  pendulum  or  metro- 
nome placed  in  sight  or  hearing  of  the  one  at  work.  This  gives 
an  external  sensory  stimulus  that  is  perfectly  regular  in  its  in- 
tensity, but  the  attention  given  to  it  will  vary,  on  account  of  dis- 
tracting occurrences,  causing  the  slight  irregularities  before  men- 
tioned. It  is  also  likely  that  changes  of  mental  states  give  similar 
effects.  An  encouraging  word  heightens  the  contractions  for  a 
moment. 

The  influence  of  mental  states  upon  the  intensity  of  muscular 
contraction  is  further  illustrated  in  the  phenomenon  known  as 
knee  jerk.  If  the  tendon  connecting  the  patella  with  the  tibia  is 
struck,  while  the  knee  is  at  a  right  angle  and  hanging  freely,  the 
extensor  muscles  will  contract.  This  was  formerly  called  a 
"tendon  reflex,"  but  is  now  considered  a  direct  response  of  the 
muscle  to  the  jerk  given  its  tendon  by  the  blow.  Connecting  the 
foot  with  the  recording  part  of  the  ergograph  we  are  able  to  reg- 
ister the  amount  of  movement  made.  A  small  hammer,  swung 
on  a  pivot,  is  used  to  give  a  uniform  stroke  at  regular  intervals. 
The  experiment  shows  a  remarkable  influence  of  mental  condi- 


38  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

tions  upon  the  muscles.  If  the  person  is  undisturbed  and  tries  to 
go  to  sleep,  the  knee-jerk  almost  ceases.  A  sudden  noise  of  any 
kind  causes  a  large  movement.  Telling  him  an  exciting  story 
results  in  large  movements  as  long  as  the  excitement  lasts.  Sud- 
denly telling  him  some  startling  news  causes  a  movement  ten  times 
as  large  as  the  preceeding.  The  common  explanation  of  this  is 
that  the  muscles,  as  well  as  the  nervous  system,  are  constantly 
under  influence  of  what  is  passing  in  the  mind.  Some  diseases  of 
the  nervous  system  increase  this  influence.  Others  destroy  it 
entirely.  The  effect  upon  the  athlete  of  the  excitement  of  the  con- 
test and  the  applause  of  his  fellows  is  more  far-reaching  than  he 
supposes.  The  teacher  of  physical  training  should  realize  thor- 
oughly how  much  the  intensity  of  work  depends  upon  the  mental 
state  of  the  worker. 

When  a  movement  is  made  in  response  to  a  stimulus  or 
signal,  a  certain  amount  of  time  intervenes  between  the  signal  and 
the  response.  A  part  of  this  is  used  in  the  transmission  of  ner- 
vous impulses,  and  a  part  in  the  mental  processes,  in  case  of  vol- 
untary movement.  When  thought,  or  memory,  or  judgment  is 
involved,  more  time  is  used.  A  convenient  and  accurate  method 
of  measuring  the  time  used  in  all  these  mental  and  physiological 
processes  is  by  use  of  a  tuning-fork  of4:nown  rate  which  is  made 
to  record  its  vibrations  upon  the  moving  drum  of  the  kymograph 
along  with  the  record  of  the  movement.  An  electric  time  marker 
for  registering  the  exact  time  of  the  stimulus,  the  pointer  for  re- 
cording the  movement,  and  the  pointer  attached  to  the  tuning- 
fork  are  all  made  to  touch  the  drum  in  a  vertical  line.  Whatever 
time  intervenes  between  the  signal  and  the  response  will  be  meas- 
ured by  the  recorded  vibrations  of  the  fork.  By  experiments  of 
this  kind  it  has  been  found  that  muscle  has  a  "latent  period"  of 
about  .01  sec.,  that  its  contraction  occupies  about  .04  sec;  that  the 
time  occupied  in  a  reflex  movement,  while  varying  considerably 
for  different  persons  and  under  various  conditions,  averages  about 
.06  sec. ;  and  that  the  time  for  voluntary  movements  may  be  any- 
thing from  .05  sec.  to  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  depending  upon 
how  difficult  are  the  problems  of  judgment  and  choice  involved 
and  also  upon  the  individual. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  VITAL  ORGANS  OF  THE  BODY. 

The  neuro-muscular  system  is  generally  understood  to  in- 
clude only  the  tissues  and  organs  considered  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  The  circulatory,  respiratory,  and  digestive  systems  are, 
strictly  speaking,  also  neuro-muscular  systems,  since  their  func- 
tions involve  the  actions  of  muscles,  which  are  controlled  by  the 
nervous  system.  The  movements  belong  to  the  class  of  natural  or 
inherited  reflexes,  and,  with  the  exception  of  breathing,  are  not 
subject  to  the  influence  of  the  will.  The  nerve-cells  whose  fibers 
pass  to  these  muscles  are  situated  in  the  medulla.  The  group  of 
cells  controlling  a  certain  organ  or  function  is  called  the  center 
for  that  organ  or  function.  The  cells  composing  these  centers, 
lying  within  the  range  of  influence  of  brush-endings  of  fibers  from 
the  spinal  ganglia  and  from  the  brain,  are  subject  to  the  influence 
of  mental  states  and  of  various  kinds  of  sensory  stimuli.  Most 
of  the  nerve-fibers  are  non-medullated. 

The  circulatory  system  includes  the  heart,  arteries,  capillaries, 
and  reins.  The  function  of  the  heart  is  to  propel  the  blood  ;  of  the 
arteries,  to  distribute  it  to  the  tissues ;  of  the  capillaries,  to  bring 
it  into  intimate  relation  to  the  tissues ;  of  the  veins,  to  collect  and 
return  it  to  the  heart.  The  circulatory  system  in  man  is  a  double 
system,  having  one  complete  circuit  to  the  lungs  and  another  to 
the  body.  The  larger  arterial  trunks  convey  the  blood  to  various 
parts  of  the  body,  where  they  give  off  branches 'which  enter  the 
bones,  muscles,  and  other  organs.  The  arteries  entering  a  muscle 
pass  through  the  sheath  and  between  the  bundles,  sending  smaller 
branches  into  the  bundles.  Within  the  bundles  of  fibers  the  small 
arteries,  called  arterioles,  divide  into  the  still  smaller  capillaries, 
which  surround  each  fiber  with  a  network  of  connecting  tubes. 
(Fig.  17.)  These  do  not  penetrate  the  muscle-fibers  nor  open  into 
the  spaces  between  them.  Finally  the  capillaries  unite  to  form  the 


40  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

veins,  which  pass  back  to  the  heart  by  a  course  similar  to  that 
of  the  arteries.  The  distribution  of  blood  to  the  lungs  and  other 
organs  is  very  similar. 

The  heart  is  a  hollow  organ  with  muscular  walls.  When  the 
walls  contract  the  cavity  is  made  smaller,  and  this  forces  the  blood 
out.  Valves  allow  the  blood  to  pass  out  only  to  the  arteries,  and 
to  enter  only  from  the  veins.  It  is  a  double  organ,  the  right  half 
sending  blood  to  the  lungs  and  the  left  half  to  the  body.  The 
upper  chambers,  or  auricles,  receive  the  blood  from  the  veins  and 
empty  it  into  the  chambers  below,  the  ventricles.  The  latter,  hav- 
ing much  the  heavier  work  to  do,  have  their  walls  developed  to  a 
greater  thickness.  The  left  side  of  the  heart  is  for  the  same  reason 
stronger  than  the  right. 

Heart  muscle  differs  from  voluntary  muscle  in  function  as 
well  as  in  structure.  A  frog's  heart,  removed  from  the  body  and 
severed  from  all  nervous  connections,  will  beat  for  some  time  in 
regular  rythm,  if  suitable  conditions  are  provided  as  to  tempera- 
ture and  moisture.  A  small  strip  cut  from  a  turtle's  heart  will 
beat  in  like  manner.  The  hearts  of  birds  and  mammals  are  not 
so  tenacious  of  life,  but  they  can  be  made  to  beat  for  a  short  time 
after  separation  from  the  nervous  system.  This  automatic  con- 
traction at  regular  intervals  is  peculiar  to  the  heart  muscle,  and 
seems  to  be  a  characteristic  of  the  muscle  substance  itself,  although 
there  are  ganglia  within  the  heart. 

The  strength  and  speed  of  the  heart's  contractions  are  con- 
trolled from  two  centers  in  the  medulla,  called  the  cardiac  inhibi- 
tory and  the  cardiac  accelerator  centers.  (Fig.  18.)  If  the  axones 
from  the  inhibitory  center  are  severed,  the  beat  at  once  be- 
comes more  rapid.  When  they  are  stimulated  by  induction  shocks, 
the  beat  becomes  slower,  and  a  strong  stimulus  will  stop  it  for 
some  moments.  If  the  axones  from  the  accelerator  centers  are 
cut,  no  immediate  effect  is  produced,  but  stimulation  causes  in- 
creased heart  action.  The  commonly  accepted  explanation  is  that 
the  inhibitory  center  is  constantly  sending  impulses  that  inhibit 
the  action  of  the  heart,  while  the  accelerator  center  acts  only  when 
need  of  increased  action  occurs.  Through  these  agencies  the 
heart's  action  is  lessened  in  certain  cases,  as  in  loss  of  blood, 


VITAL    ORGANS 


severe  injury  or  pain,  and  some  emotions,  and  increased  in  others, 
such  as  the  presence  of  an  unusual  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  lungs 
or  of  waste  products  in  the  tissues,  excitement,  etc. 

The  arteries  are  cylindrical  tubes  whose  walls  are  composed 
of  three  layers.    The  outer  layer  is  elastic  connective  tissue.    The 


-  VI 


Heart 


FIG.  17.     Voluntary  muscle  fibers, 
injected  to  show  the  capillaries. 


FIG.   18.     Diagram  of  nervous  mechanism  of  cardiac 
inhibition.     /,  sensory  fiber  from  heart;  //,  fiber 
from  cerebrum ;  III,  sensory  fiber  from  the  body ; 
IV,  inhibitory  fiber  to  heart;  V,  inhibitory  cen- 
ter; VI,  brain.  (From  Mills' Animal  Physiology.) 


42  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

middle  layer,  which  is  the  thickest  of  the  three,  consists  of  fibers 
arranged  in  circular  form,  a  part  of  them  being  elastic  connective 
tissue  and  a  part  involuntary  muscle  fibers.  The  inner  layer  is  a 
soft  membrane,  which  is  continued  into  the  capillaries,  where  the 
other  layers  are  lacking. 

If  the  arterial  walls  were  rigid,  the  sudden  increase  of  pres- 
sure produced  by  contractions  of  the  left  ventricle  would  be  trans- 
mitted through  the  whole  length  of  the  tubes,  and  the  soft,  deli- 
cate walls  of  the  capillaries  would  be  in  danger  of  rupture  from 
the  violence  of  these  waves.  The  elastic  walls  of  the  arteries  yield 
at  each  beat  and  then  shrink  more  slowly  to  their  former  size, 
thus  softening  the  force  of  the  waves  and  changing  the  current 
gradually  into  a  more  constant  stream.  The  sudden  enlargement 
of  an  artery  at  the  time  of  these  waves  is  called  the  pulse,  and 
furnishes  a  convenient  means  of  investigating  the  character  of  the 
blood  flow.  The  pulse  may  be  felt  wherever  a  large  artery  is  near 
the  surface. 

A  record  of  the  pulse  may  be  made  upon  the  drum  of  the 
kymograph  by  means  of  two  tambours,  one  for  receiving  and  one 
for  recording.  The  tambour  is  a  shallow  disk  with  the  concave 
side  covered  with  a  piece  of  sheet  rubber,  drawn  tight  and  fastened 
around  the  margin  with  a  thread.  A  small  tube  opens  into  the 
interior.  By  means  of  this  tube  the  tambour  is  connected  with  a 
piece  of  rubber  tubing  which  joins  the  other  tambour  in  the  same 
manner.  (Fig.  19.)  The  air  chambers  of  the  two  tambours  are 
thus  put  into  free  communication,  and  any  pressure  upon  the  face 
of  one  will  cause  a  corresponding  enlargement  of  the  other.  One 
of  the  tambours  is  applied  to  the  skin  over  the  artery.  The  other 
is  arranged  so  as  to  move  a  pointer  which  writes  on  the  drum. 
The  best  results  are  obtained  from  the  carotid  artery,  in  the  neck. 
The  instrument  records  the  rate  and  character  of  the  heart's  beat, 
and  shows  also  any  changes  in  the  strength,  speed,  or  character 
of  the  beat  resulting  from  exercise  or  other  influences. 

In  flowing  through  the  vessels  the  blood  meets  with  resistance 
due  to  friction  between  the  blood  and  the  vessel  walls.  The  fric- 
tion is  greatest  in  the  small  tubes  and  is  proportional  to  their 
length.  The  result  is  that  the  heart  has  to  exert  a  considerable 


THE: 


ORGANS 


43 


force  to  pump  the  blood,  and  the  blood  is  under  pressure  in  the 
arteries.  The  amount  of  this  pressure  is  an  important  item  in  the 
study  of  the  circulation,  for  if  the  pressure  is  too  small  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  small  tubes,  enough  blood  is  not  sent 


FIG. 


Apparatus  for  recording  pulse. 


through  to  feed  the  tissues,  while  if  the  pressure  is  too  great,  it 
may  overwork  the  heart  or  rupture  the  capillaries. 

The  arterial  pressure  is  measured  in  millimeters  of  mercury ; 
a  pressure  sufficient  to  force  a  column  of  mercury  to  a  height, 
for  example,  of  100  mm.  is  called  a  pressure  of  100.  Under  nor- 
mal conditions  and  at  rest  the  pressure  in  the  arteries  of  a  full 


44  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

grown  man  is  between  90  and  125.  When  it  falls  below  80,  one 
is  apt  to  feel  faint,  from  insufficient  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain ; 
a  pressure  of  150  or  175  gives  a  mild  feeling  of  exhiliration  ;  when 
it  goes  above  200  it  is  apt  to  cause  a  feeling  of  heat  and  pressure 
in  the  head;  at  250  there  is  danger  of  straining  the- heart  or  rup- 
turing vessels.  When  the  heart  or  vessels  are  diseased,  the  danger 
point  is  reached  sooner. 

The  arterial  pressure  is  measured  in  man  by  an  instrument 
that  produces  .enough  pressure  around  the  upper  arm  to  stop  the 
pulse  at  the  wrist.  As  the  examiner  feels  the  pulse  disappear  he 
reads  the  pressure  indicated  by  the  instrument;  this  gives  the 
amount  of  arterial  pressure  that  has  been  overcome  in  the  arm, 
and  this  is  practically  the  same  as  that  in  the  other  large  arteries. 

Since  the  pressure  in  the  arteries  is  caused  by  the  pumping 
action  of  the  heart  working  against  the  resistance  the  blood  meets 
in  the  vessels,  it  is  evident  that  the  pressure  increases  with  in- 
crease of  heart  action  and  with  constriction  of  the  arteries ;  and 
that  it  decreases  with  decrease  of  heart  action  and  dilation  of 
arteries.  In  other  words,  arterial  pressure  varies  directly  with 
the  heart  action  and  inversely  with  the  size  of  the  arteries. 

The  function  of  the  muscular  fibers  in  the  arterial  walls  is 
to  control  the  size  of  the  arteries.  They  are  supplied  with  nerve- 
fibers  from  the  vaso-motor  center,  which  is  situated  in  the  medulla. 
(Fig.  20.)  Through  its  influence  the  muscle-fibers  are  kept  in  a 
state  of  partial  or  tonic  contraction.  By  changing  the  amount  of 
contraction  of  these  fibers  throughout  the  whole  arterial  system, 
the  blood  pressure  is  controlled.  For  example,  a  bundle  of  nerve- 
fibers,  called  the  depressor  fibers,  passes  from  the  heart  to  the 
vaso-motor  center.  When  the  heart  is  injured  or  overworked,  these 
fibers  carry  impulses  which  act  upon  the  center,  causing  relaxa- 
tion of  the  arterial  walls  and  consequent  reduction  of  blood  pres- 
sure. Again,  the  vaso-motor  mechanism  is  the  means  of  changing* 
the  distribution  of  blood  to  different  parts  of  the  body.  Change  in 
the  heart  action  can  change  the  amount  of  blood  sent  to  the  body 
in  a  given  time,  but  this  change  affects  all  parts  alike.  When 
some  parts  need  more  blood  than  others,  the  distribution  is  con- 
trolled by  the  vaso-motor  center.  In  response  to  sensory  stimuli 


THE:  VITAL  ORGANS 


45 


acting  upon  the  center  the  fibers  in  regions  needing  a  greater 
blood  supply  are  relaxed,  while  those  in  other  parts  are  corre- 
spondingly contracted.  Thus  when  food  is  introduced  into  the 


VI. 


IV.— 


FIG.  20.  Diagram  of  vaso-motor  mechanism.  I,  sens- 
ory fiber  from  heart  II,  fiber  from  brain.  Ill, 
fiber  from  body.  IV,  fiber  to  muscle  in  walls  of 
blood  vessels.  V,  spinal  cord.  VI,  vaso-motor 
center.  (From  Mills.) 

digestive  tract,  impulses  go  the  vaso-motor  center  and  more  blood 
is  sent  there.  The  same  is  the  case  when  waste  products  are 
formed  in  the  brain  or  in  the  muscles.  Other  cases  of  vaso-motor 
action  will  be  mentioned  later. 


46  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

The  circulation  in  the  veins,  while  primarily  caused  by  the 
action  of  the  heart,  is  materially  assisted  by  (i)  bodily  movements 
of  a  rythmical  character  and  by  (2)  breathing.  These  two 
agencies  act  directly  in  a  mechanical  way  upon  the  circulation,  and 
not,  like  the  other  influences  mentioned,  through  the  nervous 
system.  The  same  effect  is  produced  at  the  same  time  upon  the 
circulation  in  the  lymphatic  vessels.  The  effect  of  rythmical  ex- 
ercises is  due  to  the  easy  compressibility  of  the  veins  and  lym- 
phatics and  the  presence  of  valves.  When  the  portion  of  a  vein 
between  two  valves  is  pressed  between  contracting  muscles,  the 
blood  contained  in  it  is  squeezed  out,  in  a  direction  toward  the 
heart.  When  the  pressure  is  removed,  it  is  filled  again  from  the 
opposite  direction.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  the  identical  action 
of  a  syringe  pump, — indeed,  the  same  as  that  of  the  heart  itself, 
except  that  the  pressure  is  from  without.  The  value  of  passive 
movements  and  massage  is  largely  dependent  upon  this  effect. 
The  influence  of  breathing  upon  the  circulation  in  veins  and  lym- 
phatics is  due  to  the  great  reduction  of  pressure  in  the  chest  when 
it  expands,  causing  a  suction,  which  cannot  act  upon  the  arteries, 
because  of  the  valves  at  the  beginning  of  the  aorta.  The  fluid  in 
the  veins  and  lymphatics  is  drawn  toward  the  heart,  and,  when  the 
chest  falls  in  expiration,  it  cannot  return  because  of  the  valves. 

Normal  breathing  is  automatic  and  rythmical,  like  the  action 
of  the  heart.  Unlike  the  heart,  the  action  stops  short  when  the 
nerves  supplying  the  breathing  muscles  are  severed.  The  respira- 
tory center  not  only  presides  over  the  range  and  rapidity  of  the 
movements,  but  it  is  necessary  to  the  existence  of  breathing  move- 
ments. The  automatic  part  of  the  mechanism  is  in  this  case  the 
center,  which  is  at  the  same  time  under  the  influence  of  impulses 
reaching  it  from  the  brain  and  all  parts  of  the  body.  It  responds 
instantly  to  an  increase  of  waste  products  in  the  tissues,  showing 
noticeable  increase  with  the  slightest  additional  exercise.  Par- 
ticular stimuli  cause  modified  forms  of  the  movement,  such  as 
coughing,  sneezing,  sighing,  yawning,  laughing,  crying,  etc.  Vol- 
untary control  of  the  breathing  is  very  important,  as  we  are  not 
only  able  to  control  the  movements  to  suit  our  purpose  at  any 
given  time,  but  also  to  modify  the  habit  of  breathing,  so  as  to 


THE   VITAL   ORGANS 


47 


Respiratory 
center. 


_.i 1—  Intercostal  muscles. 


Muscles  of  nose  and  throat. 

Membranes  of  nose  and 

throat. 


Diaphragm. 


•Abdominal  muscles.  Skin. 


FIG.  21.    Nervous  mechanism  controlling  the  breathing  muscles. 


48  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

change,  somewhat,  its  manner  or  form.  In  other  words,  the 
respiratory  center  is  susceptible  of  education,  like  other  centers 
of  reflex  action.  (Fig'.  21.) 

The  movement  of  the  wall  of  the  chest  or  abdomen  during 
breathing  may  be  recorded  by  the  apparatus  used  in  recording 
heart  action,  except  that  in  place  of  a  tambour  for  receiving  we 
use  a  bulb. 

We  have  seen  how  the  chemical  activities  in  the  tissues  con- 
sume food  and  oxygen  and  form  certain  waste  products.  We  have 
also  noticed  some  of  the  injurious  effects  of  these  substances  upon 
the  tissues,  and  something  of  the  urgent  haste  with  which  the  body 
endeavors  to  get  rid  of  them.  The  elimination  of  these  poisonous 
gases  consists  of  the  following  four  steps  :— 

(1)  The  gas,  principally  carbon  dioxide,  passes  from  the 
tissue  where  it  is  formed  into  the  blood  in  the  capillaries.    There 
are  three  reasons  for  this  movement  of  the  gas.    First,  it  tends  to 
diffust  in  all  directions,  with  a  force  proportionate  to  the  differ- 
ence of  it's  densities  in  the  different  places.     Second,  it  passes 
readily  through  the  thin  membranes  of  the  animal  body,  consist- 
ing, in  the  present  case,  of  the  sarcolemma  of  the  muscle-fiber  and 
the  wall  of  the  capillary.     Third,  it  is  readily  absorbed  by  water, 
which  constitutes  about  85  per  cent,  of  the  blood. 

(2)  It  is  transported  in  the  blood  from  the  muscles  to  the 
lungs.    This,  as  we  have  seen,  is  due  to  the  action  of  heart,  aided 
by  the  action  of  other  muscles. 

(3)  It  passes  from  the  blood,  now  in  the  capillaries  in  the 
lungs,  to  the  air  in  the  adjacent  air-cells ;  a  process  very  similar 
to  the  first  step,  and  having  the  same  explanation. 

(4)  It  is  removed  from  the  air  of  the  lungs  by  breathing. 
In  quiet  breathing  about  25  cu.  in.  of  air  is  expelled  at  a  breath. 
This  is  only  about  i/io  of  the  air  in  the  lungs,  so  that  the  elim- 
ination by  a  single  breath  is  not  complete. 

A  consideration  of  these  processes  shows  us  that  two  of  them 
depend  upon  muscular  action,  with  their  success  dependent  upon 
the  strength  and  healthy  activity  of  those  muscles.  The  other 
two  depend  upon  natural  forces,  the  completeness  of  elimination 


THE    VITAL   ORGANS  49 

being  dependent  upon  differences  in  the  densities  of  the  gas  in 
the  muscle-fibers  and  in  the  air  outside  of  the  body, — in  other 
words,  upon  the  completeness  of  ventilation. 

It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  that  the  effect  of  bodily 
exercise  upon  respiration  consists  in  a  quickening  of  the  pro- 
cesses in  each  of  the  four  steps ;  the  increase  in  the  rapidity  of 
diffusion  of  the  gas  in  the  first  and  third  steps  being  due  to  the 
increased  density  of  the  gas  in  the  muscle-fibers,  and  the  increased 
muscular  action  of  the  second  and  fourth  steps  resulting  from 
stimulation  of  the  cardiac  and  respiratory  centers.  Since  it  is  by 
the  action  of  the  heart  and  the  breathing  muscles  that  all  the 
carbon  dioxide  formed  in  the  body  has  to  be  eliminated,  it  is 
evident  that  the  amount  of  work  thrown  upon  these  muscles  at 
any  time  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  muscular  area  that  is 
being  exercised  and  also  upon  the  intensity  of  the  exercise.  Look- 
ing at  the  same  question  in  another  way,  we  may  say  that  the 
quantity  of  waste  products  to  be  removed,  and  consequently,  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  done  by  the  heart  and  breathing  muscles,  is 
proportional  to  the  total  amount  of  ivork  done  in  the  exercise. 
Now  that  the  total  amount  of  work  done  is  the  product  of  the 
weight  lifted  by  the  distance  through  which  it  is  lifted.  For  ex- 
ample, a  person  who  weighs  150  pounds,  in  walking  up  stairs 
10  inches  in  height  at  the  rate  of  two  steps  per  second,  does  work 
at  the  rate  of  250  foot-pounds  per  second.  This  would  increase 
the  heart  rate  and  breathing  considerably.  To  do  the  same  amount 
of  work  on  the  ergograph  one  would  have  to  lift  a  ten-pound 
weight  to  the  height  of  five  inches  at  the  rate  of  60  times  per 
second, — which  is  clearly  impossible.  If  the  amount  of  work  done 
in  a  short  time  is  very  great,  it  produces  a  condition  known  as 
breathlessness.  This  is  characterized  by  very  strong  and  rapid 
action  of  heart  and  breathing  muscles,  accompanied  by  an  ap- 
parent difficulty  to  empty  the  lungs. 

Of  the  energy  liberated  by  the  chemical  activity  in  the  muscles 
in  moderate  exercise,  only  about  15  per  cent,  is  in  the  form  of 
mechanical  motion.  Nearly  all  the  remainder  of  it  is  in  the  form 
of  heat.  The  heat  thus  produced  keeps  the  body  warm,  and  the 


50  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

excess  is  lost.  A  small  amount  is  thrown  off  with  the  excretions 
and  the  air  expired,  but  nearly  four-fifths  of  it  is  lost  through  the 
skin.  With  the  great  variation  in  the  amount  of  exercise  taken 
at  different  times  and  the  wide  ranges  of  temperature  of  the  air 
outside  the  body,  we  would  expect  great  changes  in  the  bodily 
temperature.  In  spite  of  all  these  varying  conditions,  bodily  tem- 
perature is  almost  constant  in  health,  at  98.6°  Fahrenheit. 

The  maintenance  of  uniform  bodily  temperature  is  so  essen- 
tial to  comfort  and  health  that  much  is  done  voluntarily  to  secure 
it;  shelter,  fire,  clothing,  baths,  changes  of  food  and  drink,  and 
exercise  being  among  the  means  so  used.  The  more  exact  and 
minute  regulation  of  the" temperature  of  the  body  is  nevertheless 
accomplished  by  reflex  mechanism  within  the  body  itself.  First 
may  be  mentioned  the  agency  of  the  blood  in  distributing  the  heat 
to  all  parts  of  the  body.  In  vigorous  exercise  not  only  the  work- 
ing parts  are  warmed,  but  the  blood  scatters  the  heat  throughout 
the  system.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  when  one  is 
in  a  colder  place  more  combustion  takes  place  in  the  tissues  than 
when  in  a  warmer  place.  The  test  is  made  by  measuring  either 
the  oxygen  consumed  or  the  carbon  dioxide  exhaled.  The  fact  is 
explained  upon  the  theory  that  sensory  impulses  produced  by 
heat  and  cold  act  upon  the  motor  cells  of  the  spinal  cord  and  thus 
influence  the  activity  of  the  protoplasm  in  the  muscles,  where 
most  of  the  heat  is  produced.  When  impulses  caused  by  heat 
enter  the  cord,  the  heat  producing  activity  is  inhibited ;  when  the 
stimulus  is  cold,  the  activity  is  increased.  The  existence  of  a 
center  for  the  control  of  heat  production  is  accepted  by  some 
authors  and  denied  by  others. 

The  rapidity  with  which  heat  is  lost  from  the  surface  of  the 
body  is  controlled  by  two  reflex  mechanisms.  ( I )  Impulses  which 
enter  the  spinal  cord  as  the  result  of  external  cold  act  upon  the 
vaso-motor  center,  and  as  a  result,  arteries  supplying  the  skin  are 
constricted  and  those  lying  deep  within  are  dilated.  When  the 
sensory  endings  that  respond  to  heat  are  irritated,  the  action  is 
the  reverse,  sending  more  blood  to  the  skin.  (2)  The  presence 
of  more  blood  in  the  skin  increases  the  activity  of  the  sweat 


THE:  VITAL  ORGANS  51 

glands,  causing  them  to  pour  out  upon  the  surface  an  increased 
amount  of  moisture.  The  sweat  glands  are  at  the  same  time  under 
direct  control  of  a  center  called  the  sweat  center,  which  is  situated 
near  the  other  centers  mentioned.  The  evaporation  of  moisture 
is  a  very  efficient  cooling  process. 

Brisk  exercise  causes  the  liberation  of  so  much  heat  that 
nature  uses  all  means  to  throw  it  off.  Consequently,  when  such 
exercise  is  concluded,  the  skin  is  wet  and  the  clothing  often  satu- 
rated with  perspiration.  With  the  conclusion  of  the  exercise  the 
production  of  heat  almost  ceases,  necessitating  a  checking  of  the 
loss  of  heat.  The  vaso  motor  mechanism  soon  decreases  the 
amount  of  blood  sent  to  the  skin,  but  unless  the  evaporation  can 
be  stopped,  the  temperature  is  apt  to  fall  below  the  normal  point 
and  the  person  will  "take  cold."  It  is  necessary  at  such  times  to 
remove  the  moisture  from  the  skin  and  to  put  on  dry  clothing. 
We  have  here  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  physical  training  is 
usually  taken  in  special  clothing,  and  why  facilities  for  bathing 
are  commonly  provided  with  it. 

For  the  reason  just  given,  all  exercise  vigorous  enough  to 
leave  the  skin  wet  with  perspiration  should  be  followed  by  a  bath 
and  change  of  clothing.  Water  has  so  great  a  capacity  for  heat 
that  it  has  an  intense  influence  upon  the  heat  regulating  mechan- 
ism. The  condition  in  which  it  leaves  this  mechanism  depends 
entirely  upon  the  temperature  of  -the  water. 

When  one  bathes  in  warm  water,  especially  if  the  body  is 
immersed  in  warm  water,  the  regulating  mechanism  has  to  do  its 
best  to  get  rid  of  the  heat  fast  enough.  It  checks  the  production 
of  heat  in  the  tissues,  sends  as  much  blood  as  possible  to  the  skin, 
and  stimulates  the  sweat  glands. 

In  a  cold  bath  the  body  loses  heat  with  the  greatest  rapidity. 
The  regulating  mechanism  meets  this  emergency  by  stimulating 
the  production  of  heat,  constricting  the  arteries  supplying  the 
skin,  and  checking  the  flow  of  perspiration. 

As  a  preparation  for  meeting  outward  changes  of  tempera- 
ture without  taking  cold  the  latter  is  plainly  preferable.  The 
warm  bath  leaves  the  system  in  about  the  same  condition  as  the 
exercise,  with  the  muscles  more  relaxed  and  the  heat  production 


52  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

at  the  lowest  point.  The  only  time  at  all  suitable  for  such  a  bath 
is  just  before  retiring,  or  at  some  time  when  the  body  can  be 
protected  from  cold  air  and  draughts  for  two  or  three  hours.  The 
cold  bath,  by  causing  a  stimulation  of  the  whole  system,  an  abund- 
ant heat  production,  and  keeping  the  blood  within,  puts  the  body 
in  the  best  possible  condition  for  withstanding  changes  of  tem- 
perature. 

Whatever  the  temperature  of  the  bath,  it  should  be  followed 
by  thorough  drying  of  the  skin,  or  it  will  cause  the  same  bad 
effects  as  when  perspiration  is  left  on  the  surface.  It  should 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  cold  bath  takes  heat  from  the  body 
so  rapidly  that  it  is  weakening  unless  it  is  brief.  The  warm  bath, 
taken  for  cleansing,  requires  time,  and  may  be  prolonged  with- 
out harm. 

The  exact  temperature  of  water  that  is  suitable  for  a  cold 
bath  depends  entirely  upon  the  individual.  It  should  be  cool 
enough  to  have  the  right  kind  of  influence  on  the  heat  regulating 
mechanism,  but  not  cool  enough  to  chill  the  body  nor  cause  too 
intense  a  stimulation.  The  latter  tends  to  cause  nervousness  and 
sleeplessness.  Those  who  are  fleshy  and  phlegmatic  are  benefitted 
by  baths  that  are  too  cold  for  the  thin  and  nervous.  A  sponge 
bath  is  milder  than  a  plunge  or  shower  of  the  same  temperature. 
Probably  the  best  plan  for  all  to  follow  until  they  learn  exactly 
what  kind  of  bath  is  best  for  them,  is  to  begin  with  warm  water 
and  cool  it  gradually  until  it  begins  to  feel  cold,  then  stop  and  dry 
at  once  by  brisk  rubbing.  Persons  having  heart  trouble  should 
get  advice  from  a  competent  physician  about  bathing,  and  follow 
his  directions  closely. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE    BODY    AS    A    MACHINE 

The  human  body  may  be  considered  as  a  machine  for  doing 
muscular  work.  In  this  machine  the  muscles  furnish  the  power, 
the  bones  are  used  as  levers,  the  joints  serve  as  the  axes  on  which 
the  levers  turn,  and  the  work  done  is  the  overcoming  of  some 
resistance.  Work  reacts  on  the  machine,  modifying  all  its  parts 
in  various  ways  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work,  so  that  an 
expert  in  physical  education  can  often  tell  from  an  examination 
of  a  man's  body  what  kinds  of  work  have  constituted  the  main 
part  of  his  occupation.  It  is  the  object  of  this  course  to  guide 
the  student  in  the  study  of  some  of  the  most  important  types  of 
muscular  work  so  as  to  teach  him  two  things:  (i)  how  certain 
common  types  of  bodily  exercise  affect  the  development,  form,  and 
posture  of  the  body,  and  (2)  how  to  study  the  effects  of  exercise 
on  the  body,  that  he  may  be  able  to  solve  such  problems  for  him- 
self as  they  present  themselves,  as  they  must  in  great  numbers 
if  he  teaches  in  the  department  of  physical  "education. 

MUSCULAR  STRUCTURE.  •  Each  muscle  is  composed  of  a  great 
number  of  thread-like  fibers,  a  single  muscle  often  containing  sev- 
eral hundred  thousands  of  them.  Each  of  these  fibers  is  an  inde- 
pendent unit,  having  its  own  special  connection  with  the  central 
nervous  system  by  a  nerve  fiber,  over  which  it  may  receive  stimuli. 
Contraction  of  muscle  is  a  shortening  due  to  the  shortening  of 
its  separate  fibers.  As  the  fibers  shorten  they  swell  out  in  thick- 
ness, stretching  the  sheaths  that  cover  them  and  thus  making  them 
feel  harder  to  the  touch.  This  furnishes  a  convenient  way  to  tell 
whether  a  muscle  is  taking  part  in  a  certain  exercise  or  not.  The 
lateral  enlargement  during  contraction  may  be  used  as  a  way  to 
exert  force,  as  may  be  illustrated  by  tying  a  band  tightly  about 
the  upper  arm  and  then  forcibly  bending  the  elbow ;  the  muscles 
swell  out  as  they  contract  and  exert  a  strong  pressure  on  the  band. 


54 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


Professional  strong  men  often  break  heavy  chains  in  this  manner, 
but  it  is  an  exception  to  the  usual  way  of  doing  muscular  work ; 
the  normal  method  by  which  muscles  exert  their  force  is  a  pull 
upon  the  bones  to  which  they  are  attached. 


FIG.  22.    Muscular  attachments.  M,  muscle ;  T,  tendon ;  O,  origin ;  /,  inser- 
tion; L,  bone  serving  as  a  lever;  A,  axis  or  fulcrum;  5*,  stationary  bone. 

How  ATTACHED  TO  THE  BONES. — Sometimes  the  fibers  of  a 
muscle  are  joined  directly  to  a  bone,  but  more  often  there  is  at  the 
end  of  the  muscle  a  strip  of  connective  tissue  called  a  tendon  to 
which  the  muscle  is  attached  and  which  connects  it  with  the  bone. 
The  contraction  of  a  muscle  usually  moves  both  bones  to  which 
it  is  attached,  but  for  sake  of  simplicity  the  bone  that  moves  least 
is  assumed  to  be  stationary.  The  point  where  the  muscle  joins  the 
stationary  bone  is  called  the  origin  of  the  muscle,  while  the  point 
where  it  joins  the  movable  bone  is  called  its  insertion.  (Fig.  22.) 


THE  BODY  AS  A   MACHINE  55 

The  latter  is  the  point  of  application  of  power  to  the  lever, 
and  its  distance  from  the  axis  or  fulcrum  is  the  power  arm  of  the 
lever.  The  bone  that  is  stationary  in  one  exercise  is  often  mov- 
able in  another  exercise.  For  example,  in  lifting  the  hand  to  the 
face  while  sitting,  the  upper  arm  is  stationary  and  the  forearm 
moves  up  to  it;  in  grasping  a  bar  overhead  and  lifting  the  face 
up  to  the  hand  by  use  of  the  arms  the  forearm  is  stationary  and 
the  upper  arm  moves  up  to  it.  It  is  evident  that  the  origin  and 
insertion  of  the  muscles  that  bend  the  elbow  are  reversed  in  this 
case ;  still  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  one  end  of  a  muscle  as  its 
origin  all  the  time;  for  the  sake  of  clearness  in  description,  the 
end  nearest  the.  center  of  the  body  being  selected  as  the  origin. 

AMOUNT  OF  WORK  DONE. — When  one  lifts  a  weight  he  is 
said  in  the  language  .of  mechanics  to  "do  work" ;  the  amount  of 
work  done  is  the  product  of  the  weight  by  the  distance  it  is  lifted, 
and  is  usually  expressed  in  kilogram-meters  or  foot-pounds.  If 
the  resistance  encountered  at  any  time  is  too  great  to  be  overcome, 
as  in  pushing  against  a  tree  or  a  wall,  no  "work"  in  the  mechanical 
sense  is  .done,  although  the  muscles  contract  and  expend  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  energy  in  the  attempt.  This  is  "work"  in  the 
physiological  and  practical  sense  of  the  term,  and  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  other  we  speak  of  the  work  done  in  actually  moving 
something  as  "external  work",  and  of  the  work  done  in  and  by 
the  contracting  muscles  as  "internal  work".  The  same  distinction 
should  be  made  whenever  a  part  of  the  body  is  held  in  a  fixed 
position  and  kept  from  moving  by  muscular  action,  as  in  sitting 
and  standing,  and  in  holding  a  weight  at  arm's  length.  Muscular 
contractions  serving  in  this  way  to  prevent  motion  are  called 
"static  contractions" ;  they  do  internal  work  and  may  lead  to 
muscular  development.  Still  a  third  case  is  where  the  force  of 
muscular  contraction  is  overcome  by  the  resistance,  as  when  a 
wrestler  is  unable  to  resist  his  opponent,  or  where  a  weight  is 
slowly  lowered.  Here  the  external  work,  instead  of  being  done 
"by  the  muscles"  is  said  in  the  language  of  mechanics  to  be  done 
"upon  the  muscles",  although  the  latter  are  all  the  time  doing 
internal  work.  We  may  summarize  the  three  cases  by  saying  that 


56  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

a  muscle  may  do  external  work,  static  work,  or  have  work  done 
upon  it,  according  as  its  internal  work  overcomes,  balances,  or  is 
overcome  by  the  resistance. 

POWER,  RANGE,  AND  WORK. — When  we  speak  of  the  "power" 
or  "strength''  of  a  muscle  we  mean  the  maximum  amount  it  can 
lift ;  when  we  speak  of  its  "range"  we  mean  the  greatest  distance 
it  can  shorten ;  these  are  the  two  factors  whose  product  is  the 
maximum  of  work  it  can  do  at  one  contraction.  There  is  a  wide 
difference  in  the  way  muscles  do  their  work.  For  example,  among 
several  muscles  of  the  same  size  and  condition  one  may  be  able 
to  lift  eighty  pounds  one  inch, — that  is,  it  may  have  a  strength  of 
eighty  pounds  and  a  range  of  one  inch;  another  may  have  a 
strength  of  forty  pounds  and  a  range  of  two  inches ;  a  third  may 
have  a  strength  of  twenty  pounds  and  a  range  of  four  inches ;  a 
fourth  may  have  a  strength  of  fifteen  pounds  and  a  range  of  five 
and  one-third  inches ;  all  can  do  the  same  amount  of  work  at  one 
contraction,  viz:  eighty  foot-pounds.  These  differences  in  the 
way  muscles  work  are  due  to  the  way  the  fibers  are  arranged  in 
the  muscle.  The  explanation  requires  a  consideration  of  the 
strength  and  range  of  separate  fibers  and  groups  of  fibers. 

STRUCTURE  AND  WORK. — The  strength  of  a  single  muscle 
fiber  depends  on  its  size  and  its  range  depends  on  its  length ;  more 
exactly,  the  strength  of  single  fibers  varies  directly  as  their  cross 
section  and  their  range  varies  directly  as  their  length.  In  other 
words,  a  large  fiber  will  be  stronger  but  its  greater  size  will  not 
increase  its  range;  a  longer  fiber  will  have  more  range,  but  its 
greater  length  will  not  increase  its  strength.  When  in  the  struc- 
ture of  a  muscle  several  fibers  of  the  same  length  are  placed  side 
by  side,  the  bundle  thus  formed  will  evidently  have  the  same  range 
as  one  of  the  fibers  and  the  strength  of  all  combined ;  if  these 
same  fibers  were  joined  end  to  end  into  a  long  strand  they  would 
be  able  to  do  the  same  amount  of  work,  but  in  a  different  way ; 
they  would  have  the  strength  of  one  of  the  fibers  and  the  range 
of  all  combined.  From  these  illustrations  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
range  of  a  muscle  depends  on  the  length  of  the  fibers  or  strands 
composing  it,  and  that  its  strength  will  depend  on  the  number  of 


THE  BODY  AS  A   MACHINE 


57 


FIG.  23.    Types  of  Muscle  Structure. 

fibers  pulling  side  by  side,  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  area  of 
its  cross  section. 

Figure  23  shows  how  fibers  are  arranged  in  muscles  of  the 
same  size  and  of  approximately  the  same  shape  so  as  to  give  the 
variations  in  strength  and  range  that  we  need.  In  (a)  the  fibers 
or  strands  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  muscle ;  as  we  pass  from 
(a)  to  (e)  the  muscles  increase  in  strength  and  decrease  in  range. 
The  arrangement  of  fibers  in  (a)  is  called  longitudinal,  (b),  (c), 
and  (d)  penniform,  and  (e)  is  bipenniform. 

A  muscle  or  a  fiber  can  lift  most  when  it  is  fully  extended, 
and  its  strength  gradually  diminishes  as  it  shortens.  Fibers  in 
good  condition  can  shorten  in  contraction  to  half  their  full  length. 
Well  trained  human  muscle,  when  fully  extended,  can  lift  about 
eighty-five  pounds  for  every  square  inch  of  its  cross  section.  Such 
a  cross  section  must  of  course  be  taken  at  right  angles  to  the  fibers 
and  must  include  all  of  them.  Varying  with  the  condition  of  the 
individual,  the  strength  may  be  anywhere  between  this  and  zero. 


58  PHYSICAL,    TRAINING 

TERMS  RELATING  TO  BONES. — A  projection  upon  a  bone  is 
called  a  process,  and  if  long  a  spinous  process  or  spine.  A  short 
projection  is  called  a  tuber osity  and  when  small  a  tubercle.  A 
depression  in  a  bone  is  called  a  fossa,  and  a  hole  into  or  through 
a  bone  is  called  a  foramen. 

The  junction  of  two  bones  is  called  an  articulation,  of  which 
there  are  several  kinds.  The  bones  of  the  skull  and  those  of  the 
pelvis  are  so  joined  as  to  permit  no  movement;  articulations  that 
permit  movement  are  commonly  called  joints.  The  vertebrae  of 
the  spinal  column  are  joined  with  a  disc  of  cartilage  between,  the 
movement  being  due  to  the  yielding  of  the  discs;  the  name 
umphiar  thro  sis  is  applied  to  these  joints.  Many  joints,  like  those 
of  the  wrist  and  foot,  permit  only  a  slight  gliding  of  one  bone 
upon  another;  these  are  called  arthrodial  joints.  Others  permit 
wide  movement  in  one  plane,  like  the  elbow  and  ankle,  and  are 
called  hinged  joints.  A  few,  like  the  wrist  joint,  permit  movement 
freely  in  two  planes,  but  no  rotation ;  such  are  called  condyloid 
joints ;  finally  we  have  the  ball  and  socket  joints,  like  the  shoulder 
and  hip,  permitting  free  movement  in  all  planes  and  rotation  on 
.an  axis  besides. 

Articulating  surfaces  of  bone  are  always  lined  by  a  synovial 
membrane,  which  is  reflected  across  from  one  bone  to  the  other  to 
form  a  closed  sac.  The  synovial  membrane  secretes  a  fluid,  called 
the  synovial  fluid,  which  lubricates  the  joint  and  so  prevents  any 
considerable  friction.  In  most  joints  there  is  at  least  one  piece  of 
cartilage  to  form  a  surface  of  contact,  movement  apparently  taking 
place  with  less  friction  between  bone  and  cartilage  than  between 
two  bones.  The  bones  forming  a  joint  are  kept  in  place  by  strong, 
bands  of  connective  tissue  called  ligaments.  They  are  usually  less 
elastic  than  tendons,  and  connect  bone  to  bone  as  shown  in  Fig.  24. 
The  several  ligaments  surround  the  joint  and  their  edges  are  al- 
ways joined  to  form  a  closed  sac  called  a  capsule  which  serves  to 
protect  the  joint  and  to  prevent  rupture  of  the  synovial  membrane 
and  escape  of  the  fluid. 

The  ligaments  limit  the  extent  of  movement  of  the  joint  and 
bring  the  motion  to  a  stop  when  one  of  them  is  drawn  tight.  Vig- 
orous bodily  exercise,  especially  when  we  are  young,  modifies  this 


THE  BODY  AS  A   MACHINE 


59 


limitation  considerably  by  stretching  a  ligament  or  even  by  a 
change  in  the  shape  of  a  bony  surface;  for  example,  persons  in 
some  occupations,  like  that  of  seamstress,  where  the  elbow  is 
rarely  extended,  become  unable  to  fully  extend  this  joint,  while 
in  other  occupations,  such  as  sweeping  and  scrubbing,  the  elbow 
is  modified  so  that  it  can  be  over-extended.  In  the  same  way  boys, 
by  continued  practice  in  throwing,  come  to  have  a  shoulder  joint 
that  permits  more  free  motion  of  that  kind  than  is  found  in  girls, 
who  practice  this  action  but  little. 

The  bones  of  children  are  comparatively  soft  and  flexible, 
being  largely  composed  of  cartilage.  In  the  process  of  growth  this 
cartilage  is  gradually  replaced  by  true  bone,  the  change  being  com- 
plete at  about  the  age  of  thirty.  As  a  consequence  of  this  fact 
children  are  more  liable  than  adults  to  faults  of  posture  and  for 
the  same  reason  treatment  is  more  effective  in  the  young. 


L 


FIG.   24.    Structure   of   a    typical ioint.   B,  bone;  A,  articular  sur- 
face; C,  cartilage;  L,  ligament;  S,  synovial  cavity. 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  MECHANISM   OF  THE  UPPER  LIMB. 

/.     Movements  of  the  Shoulder  Girdle. 

The  shoulder  girdle  includes  two  bones :  the  clavicle  and  the 
scapula.  The  arm  is  joined  to  the  scapula  and  the  clavicle  makes 
a  bony  connection  between  the  arm  and  the  main  part  of  the 
skeleton.  The  clavicles  extend  sideward  almost  horizontally  from 
the  sternum  just  above  the  first  rib ;  the  scapulae  lie  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  chest  at  the  back. 


A 
Co.. 

Sc.  - 


FIG.  25.  The  shoulder  girdle,  viewed  from  front.  Sc., 
inner  surface  of  scapula ;  A,  acromion ;  Co,  coracoid 
process;  Cl,  clavicle;'  V,  vertebrae;  S,  sternum;  H, 
humerus. 

The  clavicle  is  straight  when  viewed  from  the  front,  but  when 
seen  from  above  it  is  shaped  like  an  Italic  /,  with  the  inner  end 
convex  to  the  front  and  the  outer  end  convex  to  the  rear.  The 
inner  end  is  thicker  and  the  outer  end  more  flattened. 

The  scapula  is  a  flat  bone  of  triangular  shape  with  two  prom- 
inent processes  projecting  from  it :  the  spine  from  the  rear  and  the 


THE  UPPER  IvIMB  6l 

coracoid  from  the  front;  the  spine  ends  in  a  flattened  process 
called  the  acromion.  The  shallow  depression  into  which  the 
humerus  fits  is  called  the  glenoid  fossa ;  the  deep  fossa  above  the 
spine  is  called  the  supra-spinous  fossa ;  the  one  below  it  is  called 
the  infra-spinous  fossa. 

The  scapula  is  joined  to  the  clavicle  by  an  arthrodial  joint,  the 
end  of  the  acromion  articulating  with  the  outer  end  of  the  clavicle, 
permitting  considerable  rotation  of  the  scapula  on  the  clavicle. 

The  clavicle  is  joined  to  the  sternum  by  a  double  arthrodial 
joint,  the  bones  being  separated  by  a  cartilage,  with  one  joint  be- 
tween the  clavicle  and  the  cartilage  and  another  between  the  carti- 
lage and  the  sternum.  These  joints  allow  the  outer  end  of  the 
clavicle  to  move  up  and  down  and  forward  and  back. 

The  two  joints  included  in  the  shoulder  girdle  do  not  move 
independently ;  both  are  involved  in  all  movements  of  the  scapula 
and  shoulder.  The  following  movements  of  the  scapula  take  place : 

(1)  Backward  toward  the  spinal  column   (adduction)  ; 

(2)  Forward  away  from  the  spinal  column  (abduction)  ; 

(3)  Entire  bone  moved  upward  (elevation)  ; 

(4)  Entire  bone  moved  downward  (depression)  ; 

(5)  Rotation  on  a  center  so  as  to  raise  the  acromion  (rota- 
tion up)  ; 

(6)  Rotation  so  as  to  lower  the  acromion  (rotation  down)  ; 

MUSCLES  ACTING  ON  THE  SHOULDER  GIRDLE. 

There  are  six  muscles  connecting  the  shoulder  girdle  with  the 
main  skeleton : 

Trapezius 
Serratus  Magnus 
Levator  Anguli  Scapulae 
Pectoralis  Minor 
Rhomboid 
Subclavius 

These  muscles  produce  the  movements  of  the  scapula  men- 
tioned above  and  are  also  involved  in  movements  of  the  arms. 


62 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


TRAPEZIUS. 

The  trapezius  is  a  flat  sheet  of  muscle  located  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  back.  It  lies  just  beneath  the  skin  throughout  its  ex- 
tent. The  name  comes  from  the  shape  of  two  muscles  of  the 
right  and  left  sides  taken  together;  the  single  muscle  is  triangular. 
(Fig.  26  ) 


FIG.  2,6.  The  trapezius.  B,  base  of  the 
skull;  L,  ligament  of  the  neck;  A, 
acromial  fibers  of  the  trapezius;  a, 
acromion  process;  Ad,  adducting  fi- 
bers of  trapezius;  In,  inferior  fibers; 
V,  vertebrae. 

ORIGIN. — The  base  of  the  skull,  the  ligament  of  the  neck, 
and  the  spinous  processes  of  all  the  vertebrae  from  the  seventh 
cervical  to  the  twelfth  dorsal  inclusive, 

INSERTION. — The  outer  one-third  of  the  posterior  border  of 
the  clavicle,  the  top  of  the  acromion,  and  the  upper  border  of 
the  spine  of  the  scapula. 

STRUCTURE. — The  upper  part  of  the  muscle  is  a  thin  sheet  of 
parallel  fibers  passing  downward  and  sideward  from  their  origin 
on  the  skull  and  the  ligament  of  the  neck  to  their  .insertion  on  the 


THE  UPPER  LIMB  63 

clavicle,  from  which  it  is  sometimes  called  the  clavicular  portion 
of  the  trapezius.  It  is  so  thin  and  so  easily  stretched  when  relaxed 
that  the  tips  of  one  or  two  fingers  can  be  easily  pushed  down  be- 
hind the  clavicle,  pushing  the  muscle  along  with  it  and  forming  a 
small  pocket ;  as  soon  as  the  muscle  contracts  the  pocket  disappears 
and  no  depression  can  be  made  there  with  the  finger  tips.  This 
makes  it  possible  to  tell  when  the  upper  trapezius  is  acting,  al- 
though it  is  so  thin  that  its  contraction  cannot  be  observed  in  the 
usual  way. 


FIG.  27.  Mechanical  conditions  of  the  trapezius. 
The  black  lines  show  the  direction  of  pull  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  muscle. 

The  middle  part  of  the  trapezius,  inserted  on  the  acromion 
and  the  upper  border  of  the  spine  of  the  scapula,  is  much  the 
thickest  and  strongest  part  of  the  muscle;  the  fibers  are  shorter 
than  those  of  the  upper  trapezius  and  are  tendinous  near  the 
origin,  which  is  in  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  and  the  upper  chest 
region ;  they  converge  slightly  from  the  origin  to  the  insertion ; 
they  form  a  large  crooked  ridge  when  they  contract. 

The  lower  trapezius  is  a  triangular  sheet  whose  fibers  con- 
verge upward  and  sideward  from  their  origin  on  the  lower  thoracic 


64  PHYSICAL,    TRAINING 

vertebrae  to  a  small  tendon  which  is  inserted  into  a  small  triangular 
space  on  the  scapula  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  spine.  This  part 
is  stronger  than  the  upper  part  but  not  so  strong  as  the  middle  part. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — While  we  learn  a  good  deal  about  a  mus- 
cle by  studying  its  mechanical  conditions  on  a  mounted  skeleton, 
we  cannot  always  be  sure  of  all  the  details.  We  are  able  to  clear 
up  obscure  points  here  by  observations  of  two  kinds  that  have 
been  made  by  medical  experts:  (i)  the  effect  of  stimulating 
the  muscle  in  question  by  electricity  and  seeing  what  it  really  does, 
and  (2)  observing  what  movements  are  lost  by  persons  in  whom 
the  muscle  is  paralyzed  or  missing.  Facts  of  this  kind  will  be 
given  throughout  the  course  under  the  head  of  "isolated  action." 

When  the  upper  part  of  the  trapezius  is  stimulated  by  elec- 
tricity the  resulting  contraction  bends  the  head  to  the  same  side 
and  turns  the  face  to  the  opposite  side ;  when  the  muscles  of  both 
sides  are  stimulated  at  the  same  time  the  head  is  bent  backward 
and  the  chin  raised.  If  the  subject  holds  his  head  as  still  as  pos- 
sible by  the  use  of  other  muscles  while  the  upper  trapezius  is  stim- 
ulated, the  outer  end  of  the  clavicle  and  the  shoulder  are  lifted. 

Stimulation  of  the  middle  trapezius  shows  that  the  muscle 
acts  as  if  composed  of  four  parts,  instead  of  the  three  parts  shown 
in  its  structure.  Contraction  of  the  acromial  fibers  lifts  the 
shoulder  and  the  outer  end  of  the  clavicle;  when  the  fibers  in- 
serted into  the  upper  border  of  the  spine  contract  they  adduct  the 
scapula  powerfully,  moving  the  point  of  the  shoulder  backward. 

On  stimulating  the  lower  part  of  the  trapezius  the  vertebral 
border  of  the  scapula  is  adducted  and  depressed,  and  the  scapula 
is  held  flat  against  the  chest. 

Electrical  stimulation  of  all  four  divisions  of  the  trapezius  at 
once  produces  the  rotation  on  a  center  that  was  anticipated  in  the 
study  of  the  mechanical  conditions,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
shoulder  is  drawn  backward. 

Weakness  or  paralysis  of  the  trapezius  results  in  the  scapulae 
being  drawn  away  from  the  spinal  column  by  other  muscles,  and 
the  shoulders  lowered. 


THIS  UPPER  UMB  65 

NORMAL  ACTION. — In  the  study  of  muscular  action  that  we 
have  made  thus  far  we  can  determine  what  a  muscle  is  able  to  do 
when  it  contracts ;  we  must  also  study  its  normal  action  under  the 
control  of  the  nervous  system  and  the  will  to  learn  in  what  exer- 
cises it  does  contract  and  when  it  does  not,  for  muscles  do  not 
always  do  what  they  are  able  to  do.  Their  habitual  action  in  dif- 
ferent individuals  is  so  nearly  the  same  that  it  is  only  necessary  to 
observe  normal  action  in  a  few  cases  to  learn  the  general  rule ;  in 
most  cases  the  main  facts  can  be  learned  by  study  of  one  in- 
dividual. 


FIG.  28.     The  trapezius  in  action.  T,  trapezius;  D,  deltoid. 

To  study  normal  action  we  have  some  one  take  the  exercise 
in  question  and  notice  what  muscles  are  in  contraction  in  the  per- 
formance of  the  exercise.  This  is  usually  done  by  feeling  of  the 
muscles  to  determine  by  their  degree  of  hardness  when  they  enter 
into  contraction;  sometimes  it  can  be  seen;  sometimes  special 
methods  must  be  used.  When  muscles  lie  immediately  under  the 
skin,  like  the  trapezius,  the  problem  is  usually  easy  of  solution. 
(Fig.  28  and  Fig.  35.) 


66  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

When  anyone  acting  as  subject  for  this  kind  of  study  lifts  his 
shoulders  as  high  as  possible,  or  when  he  carries  a  weight  on  his 
shoulder,  the  second  or  acromial  part  of  the  trapezius  can  be  felt 
to  contract  strongly ;  the  third  and  fourth  parts  do  not  enter  into 
the  exercise.  The  same  is  true  in  carrying  a  weight  in  the  hand, 
in  the  manner  of  carrying  a  pail  of  water ;  but  if  the  subject  stoops 
forward  a  little,  so  that  the  work  demands  adduction  of  the 
scapula,  the  third  and  fourth  parts  of  the  muscle  spring  at  once 
into  action. 

The  third  part  of  the  trapezius,  and  to  a  less  extent  the  fourth 
part,  can  be  found  to  work  strongly  in  all  movements  involving 
vigorous  adduction  of  the  scapula.  This  is  seen  when  one  simply 
draws  the  scapulae  backward  or  when  the  arms  are  swung  back- 
ward while  held  at  the  height  of  the  shoulders,  when  using  pulley 
weights  facing  the  machine;  rowing  a  boat;  driving  a  spirited 
horse ;  in  all  exercises  in  which  we  pull  back  in  nearly  a  horizontal 
direction. 

All  parts  of  the  trapezius  come  into  action  at  the  same  time  in 
raising  arms  sideward  and  in  raising  them  above  the  horizontal  in 
any  direction.  All  exercises  that  involve  these  movements  of  the 
arms  bring  the  whole  trapezius  into  play ;  they  are  apparently  the 
only  exercises  that  do  so.  (Fig.  27.) 

LEVATOR  ANGULI  SCAPULAE. 

This  is  a  small  muscle,  usually  called  simply  the  "levator", 
situated  at  the  back  and  side  of  the  neck  and  under  the  upper 
trapezius.  (Fig.  30.) 

ORIGIN. — The  transverse  processes  of  the  upper  four  cervi- 
cal vertebrae. 

INSERTION. — The  vertebral  border  of  the  scapula,  above  the 
spine. 

STRUCTURE. — A  thick  band  of  parallel  fibers,  tendinous  near 
the  origin. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — A  disease  of  the  muscles  called  progres- 
sive atrophy  sometimes  destroys  a  muscle  completely,  and  several 


UPPEK  LIMB 


67 


muscles  may  be  lost  in  the  same  way,  one  alter  another.  The 
trapezius  is  one  of  those  most  often  destroyed  by  this  disease,  and 
then  the  levator  lies  directly  under  the  skin  and  can  be  stimulated 
by  electricity. 

Stimulation  of  the  levator  produces  first  a  lifting  of  the  verte* 
bral  border  of  the  scapula  one  or  two  centimeters  and  then  a  lift- 
ing of  the  whole  bone  two  or  three  times  as  far. 


FIG.  29.  Levator  and  middle  trap- 
ezius in  action.  L,  levator ;  T, 
trapezius. 


FIG.  30.    Levator,  rhomboid,  latis- 
simus  dorsi,  and  deltoid. 


Persons  whose  levator  and  middle  trapezius  are  weak  or  par- 
alyzed are  apt  to  have  long,  slim  necks;  those  in  whom  these 
muscles  are  exceptionally  strong  have  large  short  necks. 

NORMAL,  ACTION. — The  upper  trapezius  is  so  thin  that  when 
it  is  relaxed  the  contraction  of  the  levator  can  be  felt  through  it. 

The  levator  can  be  felt  to  contract  in  all  exercises  in  which 
the  shoulder  is  lifted  strongly,  as  in  shrugging  the  shoulders, 


68  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

carrying  a  weight  on  the  shoulder  or  in  the  hand  or  in  lifting, 
providing  always  that  the  shoulder  is  actually  lifted  in  doing  the 
work.  In  carrying  a  pail  of  water  in  the  hand,  for  example,  the 
second  part  of  the  trapezius  works  without  the  levator  unless  the 
shoulder  is  lifted  in  doing  it,  but  as  soon  as  the  shoulder  is  lifted 
bv  the  slightest  amount  the  levator  springs  at  once  into  action. 
(Fig.  29.) 

RHOMBOID. 

Named  from  its  shape,  an  oblique  parallelogram.  It  lies 
just  beneath  the  middle  of  the  trapezius.  (Fig.  30.) 

ORIGIN. — The  spinous  processes  of  the  seventh  cervical  and 
the  first  four  thoracic  vertebrae. 

INSERTION. — The  vertebral  border  of  the  scapula,  from  the 
spine  to  the  lower  angle. 

STRUCTURE. — Parallel  fibers,  extending  downward  and  side- 
ward from  the  origin  to  the  insertion.  It  is  in  two  parts,  the  major 
and  minor;  the  minor  is  above  and  is  thin  and  weak,  while  the 
major  is  thick  and  strong  at  its  lower  edge.  The  insertion  is  thin 
and  weak  for  its  upper  two-thirds,  and  is  sometimes  lacking  in 
its  middle  half ;  it  is  attached  strongly  near  the  lower  edge. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Electrical  stimulation  of  the  rhomboid, 
given  in  a  subject  who  has  no  trapezius,  produces  a  rotation  of 
the  scapula  on  its  external  angle  as  a  center,  the  lower  angle  being 
drawn  toward  the  spinal  column  and  its  vertebral  border  lifted. 
It  does  not  adduct  the  entire  scapula,  nor  does  it  draw  the  shoulder 
back  as  the  trapezius  does ;  it  holds  the  lower  angle  of  the  scapula 
close  to  the  chest  wall,  preventing  the  deep  hollow  seen  under  the 
lower  end  of  the  bone.  When  the  rhomboid  is  weak  or  paralyzed 
the  lower  angle  of  the  scapula  is  prominent. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  rhomboid  acts  powerfully  in  all 
downward  movements  of  the  arms,  especially  when  they  are 
raised  to  the  level  of  the  shoulders  or  higher ;  chopping  with  an 
ax,  striking  with  a  hammer,  and  pulling  down  on  a  rope  are  good 
examples.  The  arms  cannot  be  lifted  above  the  horizontal  while 
the  rhomboid  TS  in  contraction.  In  pulling  backward  horizontally, 


THE  UPPER  LIMB 


69 


as  in  rowing  and  similar  movements,  the  rhomboid  is  usually  as- 
sumed to  be  acting,  although  the  contracting  trapezius  covers  it 
so  that  the  question  cannot  be  answered  with  certainty ;  it  cannot 
work  to  as  good  advantage  in  these  exercises  as  when  the  pull  is 
more  directly  downward,  and  probably  does  not  do  so  except  in 
conjunction  with  the  tsres  major.  (Fig.  31.) 


FIG.  31.  The  arm  depressing  mus- 
cles in  action,  as^seen  from  the 
rear.  R  rhomboid ;  T.M.,  teres 
major;  L.D,  latissimus  dorsi. 


FIG.  32.    The  serratus  magnus.    S, 
scapula;    H,   humerus;    R,   ribs. 


SERRATUS    MAGNUS. 

This  muscle,  named  from  the  serrated  or  saw-toothed  form 
of  its  anterior  border,  lies  on  the  outside  of  the  ribs  at  the  side 
of  the  chest,  covered  by  the  scapula  at  the  back  and  by  the  pec- 
toralis  major  muscle  in  front.  It  lies  just  beneath  the  skin  over 
a  triangular  space  as  big  as  one's  hand  below  the  edge  of  the 
pectoralis  major.  (Fig.  32  and  Fig.  33.) 


7o  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  surfaces  of  the  first  nine  ribs  near  their 
middle. 

INSERTION.— The  vertebral  border  of  the  scapula  from  the 
spine  to  the  lower  angle,  beneath  the  insertion  of  the  rhomboid. 

STRUCTURE. — The  muscle  is  in  two  distinct  parts,  both  as  re- 
gards its  structure  and  its  action. 

The  upper  part  consists  of  fibers  arising  from  the  four  upper 
ribs  and  passing  backward  horizontally  to  be  inserted  into  the 


FIG.  33.  The  Serratus  and  triceps 
in  action.  S,  lower  serratus ;  T, 
triceps;  D,  anterior  portion  of 
the  deltoid. 


vertebral  edge  of  the  scapula  from  the  spine  to  the  lower  angle ; 
the  lower  part,  which  is  thicker  and  stronger,  is  a  triangular  sheet 
arising  from  the  fourth  to  the  ninth  ribs  and  converging  to  a 
point  at  the  lower  angle  of  the  scapula. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Stimulation  of  the  upper  serratus  causes 
the  scapula  to  be  drawn  forward;  stimulation  of  the  lower  ser- 
ratus causes  the  lower  angle  of  the  scapula  to  move  forward 


THE:  UPPER  UMB  71 

around  the  side  of  the  chest,  the  inner  and  upper  angle  being  the 
axis  of  motion. 

Persons  who  have  lost  the  use  of  the  upper  serratus  cannot 
push  forward  with  the  arms  or  strike  a  blow  with  the  fist ;  those 
who  have  lost  the  use  of  the  lower  serratus  cannot  lift  with  the 
arms,  and  when  they  try  to  do  so  the  vertebral  border  of  the 
scapula  is  made  prominent,  especially  its  lower  angle. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  upper  serratus  contracts  and  draws 
the  scapula  forward  in  all  movements  of  pushing,  reaching,  or 
striking  forward,  as  in  pushing  a  lawn  mower,  lacing  a  shoe,  or 
boxing.  The  contraction  of  the  muscle  cannot  be  felt  because  of 
its  position  unless  the  pectoralis  major  is  absent,  but  on  simply 
reaching  forward  the  hands  the  scapula  can  be  felt  to  glide  for- 
ward several  inches  on  the  surface  of  the  chest,  a  movement  that 
only  this  muscle  is  calculated  to  give. 

The  lower  serratus  takes  part  along  with  the  trapezius  in  all 
exercises  involving  raising  the  arm,  with  this  difference :  the 
trapezius  contracts  as  soon  as  the  arms  leave  the  sides,  while  the 
serratus  does  not  begin  its  part  until  the  arm  has  been  raised 
through  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  as  can  be  seen  by  watching 
the  position  of  the  scapula. 

Both  parts  of  the  serratus  take  part  in  exercises  involving 
holding  the  arms  forward  and  upward,  such  as  carrying  a  tray  of 
dishes,  after  the  manner  of  waiters ;  or  in  putting  the  shot  and 
many  forms  of  throwing ;  also  in  boxing. 

PECTORAUS    MINOR. 

This  muscle  lies  under  the  middle  of  the  pectoralis  major  on 
the  front  of  the  chest.  (Fig.  34.) 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  surfaces  of  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
ribs,  a  little  sideward  from  the  points  where  the  ribs  join  their 
cartilages. 

INSERTION. — The  end  of  the  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  converge  as  they  pass  upward  from 
the  three  points  of  origin  to  form  a  single  tendon  of  insertion. 


72 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


ISOLATED  ACTION. — Isolated  contraction  of  the  pectoralis 
minor  due  to  electrical  stimulation  causes  strong  depression  of  the 
shoulder;  if  the  scapula  is  held  firmly  in  place  by  voluntary  con- 
traction of  other  muscles,  the  stimulation  of  the  pectoralis  minor 
results  in  raising  the  ribs. 


FIG.  34.  The  pectoralis  major,  pectoralis  minor,  and  sub- 
clavius.  H,  humerus;  S,  sternum;  E,  ensiform  cartil- 
age; R  ribs;  c.c,  costal  cartilages;  Co,  coracoid;  P, 
pectoralis  major;  p,  the  minor;  s.  subclavius;  I,  inser- 
tion of  the  pectoralis  major. 


NORMAL  ACTION. — The  pectoralis  minor  can  be  seen  to  act  in 
deep  breathing  in  favorable  subjects,  if  the  pectoralis  major  is 
completely  relaxed.  In  movements  of  the  arm  and  scapula  the  two 
muscles  act  so  fully  in  unison  that  the  contraction  of  the  larger 
and  outer  one  always  prevents  observation  of  the  minor.  We  are 
obliged  to  assume  that  the  actions  made  possible  by  the  mechanical 
conditions  and  produced  by  isolated  contraction  of  the  pectoralis 
minor  actually  take  place  in  normal  action. 


THE  UPPER  LIMB  73 

SUBCIvAVIUS. 

A  small  and  comparatively  unimportant  muscle  situated  be- 
neath the  clavicle  at  about  its  middle.     (Fig.  34.) 

ORIGIN. — The  first  rib,   at  the  point   of   junction   with   its 
cartilage. 


FIG.  35.    Neck  firm.    D,  deltoid ;  T,  trapezius. 

INSERTION. — The  middle  half  of  the  under  surface  of 
the  clavicle. 

STRUCTURE. — From  a  small  tendon  of  origin  the  fibers  radiate 
to  their  broad  insertion. 

No  observations  have  been  made  of  the  isolated  or  normal 
action  of  the  subclavius,  but  it  can  be  reasonably  assumed  that  it 
will  aid  in  depressing  the  clavicle  and  protect  the  sterno-clavicular 
joint. 


74  PHYSICAL,    TRAINING 

2.     Movements  of  the  Shoulder  Joint. 

The  shoulder  joint  is  the  most  freely  movable  of  all  the  ball 
and  socket  joints.  It  is  formed  by  the  articulation  of  the  head  of 
the  humerus  with  the  glenoid  fossa  of  the  scapula.  This  shallow 
cavity  is  deepened  by  a  cup  of  cartilage  called  the  glenoid  cartilage 
which  is  attached  firmly  to  the  bottom  of  the  fossa  and  into  which 
the  head  of  the  humerus  fits.  The  joint  is  surrounded  by  the 
usual  capsular  ligament ;  across  the  front  of  it  is  a  strong  band  of 
fibers  connecting  the  head  of  the  humerus  with  the  coracoid  and 
called  the  coraco-humeral  ligament.  The  ligaments  of  the  shoul- 
der joint  are  so  loose  that  when  the  muscles  are  fully  relaxed  the 
head  of  the  humerus  can  be  pulled  out  of  the  socket  for  a  distance 
of  two  inches  or  more,  but  in  most  persons  the  tone  of  the  muscles 
does  not  permit  it  except  when  they  are  under  the  influence  of  an 
anesthetic.  The  acromion  protects  the  joint  from  above  and  the 
coracoid  from  in  front. 

In  describing  the  movements  of  joints,  especially  those  be- 
tween long  bones,  the  words  flexion  and  extension  are  used.  When 
the  main  axes  of  the  two  bones  are  in  the  same  straight  line  the 
joint  is  said  to  be  in  a  position  of  extension ;  movement  away  from 
this  position  in  the  direction  in  which  movement  is  most  free  is 
called  flexion;  movement  from  a  flexed  position  toward  the  ex- 
tended position  is  called  a  movement  of  extension;  if  such  a 
movement  goes  beyond  the  position  of  extension  it  is  called  over- 
extension. 

In  comparative  anatomy  the  scapula  is  found  to  be  in  most 
vertebrates  a  rather  long  bone  with  its  spine  in  line  with  its  main 
axis ;  it  is  customary  for  this  reason  to  consider  the  spine  as  indi- 
cating the  axis  of  the  scapula  in  man,  and  so  position  C  in  Fig.  36, 
with  the  arms  horizontal  sideward,  is  taken  as  the  position  of  ex- 
tension of  the  shoulder  joint.  Swinging  the  arms  forward  hori- 
zontally to  position  B  is  flexion.  Position  B  does  not  show  com- 
plete flexion,  which  is  limited  by  contact  of  the  arm  with  the  chest 
and  tension  of  the  back  side  of  the  ligament  of  the  shoulder  joint ; 
in  most  subjects  an  over-extension  of  20  or  30  degrees  is  possible. 
From  any  position  in  the  horizontal  plane  the  arm  can  be  moved 


THE:  UPPER  LIMB  75 

downward ;  this  i«  adduction,  which  is  limited  by  contact  of  the 
arm  with  the  trunk.  Raising  the  arm  from  the  side  at  any  angle 
is  called  abduction;  this  the  shoulder  joint  permits  to  an  angle  of 
90  degrees  when  it  is  directly  sideward,  and  then  the  top  of  the 
greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus  hits  the  top  of  the  glenoid  fossa, 


c 

FIG.  36.     Positions  of  the  shoulder  joint. 

stopping  the  movement.  Raising  the  arm  higher  than  this  in  the 
sidewise  direction  is  accomplished  by  rotation  of  the  scapula.  If 
the  arm  is  abducted  forward  the  shoulder  joint  permits  the  move- 
ment up  to  about  120  degrees  ;  backward,  to  only  45  degrees.  The 
movements  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

(1)  Moving  arm  forward  in  horizontal  plane  (flexion)  ; 

(2)  Moving  arm  backward  in  horizontal  plane  (extension, 
over-exfension)  ; 


76  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

(3)  Moving  arm  down  toward  the  trunk  (adduction)  ; 

(4)  Moving  arm  upward  away  from  body  (abduction)  ;' 

(5)  These  four  movements  in  succession,  moving  hand  in  a 
circle  (circumduction)  ; 

(6)  Turning  humerus  on  its  axis  (rotation). 

MUSCLES  ACTING  ON  THE  SHOULDER  JOINT. 

The  muscles  acting  on  the  shoulder  joint  include  three  large 
and  six  small  ones ;  three  of  the  small  ones  are  associates  of  the 
large  ones ;  the  other  three  are  rotators  of  the  humerus,  aiding 
also  to  hold  the  head  of  the  bone  into  the  socket. 

LARGE  MUSCLES  SMALL   ASSOCIATES  ROTATORS 

Deltoid  Supraspinatus  Infraspinatus 

Pectoralis  Major.        Coraco-brachialis         Subscapularis 
Latissimus  Dorsi        Teres  Major  Teres  Minor 

DELTOID. 

The  deltoid  is  a  triangular  muscle,  as  its  name  signifies,  lo- 
cated on  the  shoulder,  with  one  angle  pointed  down  and  the  other 
two  bent  around  the  shoulder  to  front  and  rear.  (Fig.  30.) 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  third  of  the  anterior  border  of  the 
clavicle,  the  end  of  the  acromion,  and  the  posterior  border  of  the 
spine  of  the  scapula. 

INSERTION. — A  rough  spot  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  shaft 
of  the  humerus,  just  above  its  middle. 

STRUCTURE. — The  deltoid  is  composed  of  three  parts,  the 
front  and  rear  portions  being  of  simple  penniform  structure  and 
the  middle  more  complex.  The  tendon  of  insertion  divides  into 
five  strands ;  the  outer  two  of  these,  placed  front  and  rear,  receive 
.the  muscular  fibers  from  the  front  and  rear  portions  of  the  muscle, 
which  arise  directly  from  the  clavicle  and  spine  of  the  scapula ;  the 
middle  portion  has  four  tendons  of  origin  arising  from  the  acro- 
mion and  alternating  with  the  three  parts  of  the  tendon  of  inser- 


THE  UPPER  LIMB 


77 


tion;  the  muscular  fibers  pass  across  obliquely  from  one  to  the 
other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37.  This  penniform  arrangement  of  the 
muscle  gives  the  deltoid  great  power  with  but  slight  range. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Stimulation  of  the  front  part  of  the  del- 
toid swings  the  arm  forward;  of  the  middle  part,  sideward;  of 


FIG.  37.  Structure  of  deltoid.  A,  acro- 
mion;  S,  spine  of  scapula;  C,  clavicle; 
H,  humerus;  T,  tendon  of  insertion, 
with  its  five  divisions ;  t,  the  four  ten- 
dons arising  from  the  acromion. 

the  back  part,  backward ;  the  front  part  can  lift  the  arm  highest 
and  the  back  part  to  the  least  height,  because  the  limitation  of 
movement  by  the  ligaments  of  the  joint  is  different  in  different 
directions.  Loss  of  the  anterior  deltoid  makes  it  impossible  to 
place  the  hand  on  the  opposite  shoulder;  the  arm  cannot  be  used 
to  put  a  hat  on  the  head,  nor  to  bring  food  to  the  mouth  without 


78  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

bending  the  head.    Without  the  posterior  deltoid  the  hand  cannot 
be  placed  behind  the  back  above  the  hips. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  anterior  deltoid  takes  part  in  all  exer- 
cises in  which  the  arms  are  raised  forward  or  swung  forward  in 
the  horizontal  plane ;  the  middle  deltoid,  in  all  exercises  in  which 
they  are  raised  sideward  or  swung  sideward  in  the  horizontal 
plane;  both  parts  contract  to  raise  the  arm  above  the  horizontal 
in  any  direction.  The  posterior  deltoid  acts  to  carry  the  arm  back- 
ward when  it  hangs  by  the  side  or  is  raised  in  any  direction ;  if  it 
is  raised  above  45  degrees  it  helps  to  depress  it ;  when  the  arm  is 
held  horizontal  and  moved  back  of  the  position  of  extension  the 
middle  deltoid  must  contract  strongly  or  the  posterior  part  will 
lower  it.  (Fig.  35.) 

The  angle  of  pull  of  the  deltoid  is  so  small  that  it  tends  to  lift 
the  humerus  lengthwise  and  so  to  make  its  head  press  against  the 
under  side  of  the  acromion ;  this  is  prevented  by  the  action  of  its 
small  associate,  the  supraspinatus. 

SUPRASPINATUS. 

A  small  muscle  filling  up  the  deep  supraspinous  fossa.  It  is 
covered  by  the  acromion  and  the  trapezius,  but  it  may  be  felt  in 
contraction  in  some  exercises  in  which  the  latter  is  relaxed. 

ORIGIN. — The  whole  inner  surface  of  the  supraspinous  fossa, 
as  far  as  the  upper  edge  of  the  scapula  and  the  upper  edge  of 
the  spine. 

INSERTION. — The  top  of  the  greater  tuberosity  of  the 
humerus. 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  arise  from  the  bone  and  join  the 
tendon  in  a  penniform  manner. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Upon  stimulation  of  the  supraspinatus  the 
arm  is  raised  diagonally  sideward  and  forward  with  considerable 
force,  but  this  direction  is  not  essential,  because  the  arm  thus 
raised  may  be  moved  forward  or  backward  for  a  considerable 
range  without  antagonizing  the  action  of  the  muscle.  This  action 


THE:  UPPER  UMB  79 

pulls  the  head  of  the  humerus  into  the  socket  and  thus  prevents 
friction  with  the  lower  surface  of  the  acromion. 

NORMAL,  ACTION. — The  supraspinatus  joins  the  deltoid  in  all 
movements  involving  raising  the  arms,  to  hold  the  head  of  the 
humerus  firmly  into  the  socket ;  in  raising  the  arm  sideward  it  is 
able  to  aid  in  the  lifting.  It  also  helps  to  hold  the  humerus  in  the 
socket  in  some  cases  in  which  the  deltoid  does  not  act,  as  in  carry- 
ing a  pail  of  water  in  the  hand.  The  deltoid  can  raise  the  arm 
when  the  supraspinatus  is  paralyzed,  the  work  of  the  latter  prob- 
ably being  done  by  other  muscles. 

PECTORAUS  MAJOR. 

A  large  fan  shaped  muscle  lying  on  the  front  of  the  chest 
just  beneath  the  skin.  (Figs.  34  and  38.) 

ORIGIN. — The  inner  two-thirds  of  the  anterior  border  of  the 
clavicle,  the  whole  length  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  sternum, 
and  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  from  the  second  to  the  seventh. 

INSERTION. — By  a  flat  tendon  about  three  inches  wide  into 
the  ridge  that  forms  the  external  border  of  the  bicipital  groove 
of  the  humerus,  extending  from  the  greater  tuberosity  almost  to 
the  insertion  of  the  deltoid. 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  arise  directly  from  the  bone  on  the 
front  of  the  chest  and  converge  to  join  the  tendon  of  insertion. 
Near  its  insertion  into  the  humerus  the  tendon  is  twisted  on  itself 
through  180  degrees,  the  lower  part  of  the  muscle  turning  be- 
neath to  be  inserted  next  to  the  head  of  the  humerus,  the  fibers 
from  the  clavicle  being  on  the  outside  and  joining  the  humerus 
lowest  down. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Stimulation  by  electricity  shows  that  the 
pectoralis  major  works  like  two  muscles  that  may  act  together  or 
separately.  All  parts  of  the  muscle  draw  the  arm  forward,  but 
the  upper  part  acts  more  strongly  and  raises  the  arm  more  when 
it  hangs  by  the  side,  while  the  upper  part  depresses  it  more 
strongly  when  raised  overhead. 


80  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

Loss  of  use  of  the  pectoralis  major  makes  one  unable  to  press 
the  hands  together  forcibly  and  lessens  the  force  of  arm  de- 
pression. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  pectoralis  major  takes  part  in  all 
movements  in  which  the  arms  are  raised  or  pushed  forward,  the 
part  that  is  used  most  depending  on  the  height  at  which  the  arm 
is  held. 


FIG.  38.  The  pectoralis  major  in  action. 
P  pectoralis  major;  I,  upper  part;  2, 
lower  part;  D,  anterior  deltoid;  B, 
short  head  of  biceps;  Co,  coraco-bra- 
chialis ;  R,  rectus  abdominis. 

In  putting  the  shot,  for  example,  the  upper  part  alone  acts, 
while  in  pushing  diagonally  downward,  as  in  sawing  a  board,  the 
lower  part  acts  alone ;  in  boxing  or  pushing  a  lawn  mower,  when 
the  movement  is  directly  forward,  both  parts  are  used.  This  fact 
may  be  easily  demonstrated  by  having  a  subject  hold  arms  hori- 
zontally forward  with  elbows  nearly  or  quite  extended  and  press 
the  palms  strongly  together;  in  this  position  the  whole  muscle 
may  be  seen  in  strong  contraction.  Now  if,  while  this  is  being 
done,  the  observer  presses  down  on  the  subject's  hands  and  the 


THE  UPPER  UMB  8 1 

latter  pushes  up  to  resist  it,  the  upper  half  of  the  muscle  springs 
into  stronger  contraction;  then  if  the  observer  lifts  against  the 
subject's  hands  and  the  latter  pushes  down  to  resist  it,  the  lower 
half  of  the  muscle  acts  instead. 

When  the  arms  are  raised  forward  the  pectoralis  major  aids 
the  anterior  division  of  the  deltoid  until  the  arm  is  nearly  as  high 
as  the  shoulder,  the  upper  part  of  the  muscle  alone  acting  toward 
the  upper  part  of  the  movement.  In  this  way  the  pectoralis  major 
is  an  aid  in  lifting,  especially  when  the  arms  are  straight  forward, 
with  the  hands  not  far  apart ;  as  the  hands  are  placed  farther  apart 
the  muscle  acts  less  and  less,  until  it  ceases  entirely  when  the  arms 
are  separated  at  an  angle  of  25  or  30  degrees. 

CORACO   BRACHIAUS. 

This  is  a  little  muscle  situated  deep  beneath  the  anterior  del- 
toid and  pectoralis  major  on  the  front  and  inner  side  of  the  arm. 
(Fig.  38  and  Fig.  43.) 

ORIGIN. — The  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

INSERTION. — The  inner  side  of  the  shaft  of  the  humerus,  a 
little  above  the  level  of  the  insertion  of  the  deltoid. 

STRUCTURE. — Parallel  fibers  attached  at  each  end  by  a  short 
tendon. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Isolated  contraction  of  the  coraco-  brachi- 
alis  produces  a  strong  movement  of  the  humerus  up  into  the 
socket  and  a  feebler  movement  forward  and  across  the  chest. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — While  the  coraco-brachialis  cannot  be 
readily  felt  or  seen  in  action,  because  of  its  position  and  small  size, 
we  have  reason  to  believe  that  it  acts  with  the  pectoralis  major 
as  a  slight  aid  in  moving  the  arm  forward  but  mainly  to  hold  the 
head  of  the  humerus  up  into  the  socket  so  that  the  larger  muscle 
may  act  with  its  greatest  power  without  danger  of  pulling  the 
joint  apart,  as  it  might  do  when  there  is  strong  resistance  at  the 
hand  when  the  pectoralis  is  pulling  at  an  obtuse  angle.  When 
the  coraco-brachialis  is  lacking  the  muscles  that  depress  the  arm 
draw  the  head  of  the  humerus  down  out  of  the  socket. 


82  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

LATISSIMUS  DORSI. 

Literally  translated,  "the  broadest  muscle  of  the  back" ;  lo- 
cated on  the  lower  half  of  the  back,  just  beneath  the  skin  except 
where  covered  for  a  short  space  by  the  lower  corner  of  the 
trapezius.  (Fig.  30.) 

ORIGIN. — The  spinous  processes  of  the  lower  six  thoracic  and 
all  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  the  back  of  the  sacrum,  the  crest  of  the 
hip,  and  the  lower  three  ribs. 

INSERTION. — The  bottom  of  the  bicipital  groove  on  the  front 
of  the  humerus  by  a  flat  tendon  attached  parallel  to  the  upper  half 
of  the  insertion  of  the  pectoralis  major. 

STRUCTURE;. — The  fibers  converge  from  their  wide  origin  to 
the  tendon  of  insertion  much  like  the  pectoralis  major,  and  like  the 
latter  the  tendon  twists  on  itself,  the  lower  fibers  of  the  muscle 
going  to  the  upper  side  of  the  insertion  and  the  upper  fibers  to 
the  lower. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — On  electrical  stimulation  of  the  latissimus 
dorsi  the  arm  is  drawn  downward  and  backward  and  the  humerus 
rotated  to  turn  the  palm  inward ;  if  the  upper  fibers  alone  are 
stimulated  the  scapula  is  adducted ;  if  the  lower  fibers  alone,  the 
acromion  is  depressed  and  the  head  of  the  humerus  pulled  out  of 
the  socket.  Loss  of  the  latissimus  dorsi  greatly  lessens  the  power 
to  strike  with  a  hammer  or  to  support  the  body  on  the  arms. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  latissimus  dorsi  aids  powerfully  in  all 
movements  in  which  the  arm  is  moved  down  and  back  against 
resistance,  as  in  striking  with  a  hammer,  chopping  with  an  ax, 
climbing,  rowing,  and  the  like.  In  movements  where  the  push  is 
more  directly  down  and  not  so  much  to  the  rear,  as  in  climbing  a 
rope  or  supporting  the  body  on  the  arms  on  the  parallel  bars  in 
the  position  called  "cross  rest",  the  latissimus  dorsi  works  with 
the  lower  part  of  the  pectoralis  major.  (Fig.  39.) 

TERES  MAJOR. 

Latin  for  "large  round  muscle",  acting  as  a  smaller  assistant 
of  the  latissimus  dorsi  and  located  along  the  axillary  border  of 
the  scapula,  just  beneath  the  skin. 


THE  UPPER  LIMB 


FIG.  39.  The  arm  depressing  muscles  in  action,  as  seen 
from  the  front.  P,  pectoralis  major;  L,  latissimus 
dorsi. 

ORIGIN.— The  outer  surface,  of  the  scapula  just  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  axillary  border.  (Fig.  40.) 

INSERTION. — The  ridge  that  forms  the  inner  border  of  the 
bicipital  groove  of  the  humerus,  slightly  lower  than  the  latissimus 
dorsi,  nearly  even  with  the  lower  half  of  the  insertion  of  the  pec- 
toralis major. 


84 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


STRUCTURE. — Fibers  arising  directly  from  the  scapula  and  in- 
serted in  a  penniform  manner  into  the  side  of  -the  flat  tendon. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Pull  arm  down  and  back,  rotate  humerus 
inward,  pull  lower  angle  of  scapula  forward  and  thus  rotate 
acromion  upward. 


FIG.  40.  Muscles  at  the  back  of  the 
scapula  and  humerus.  S,  supraspin- 
atus;  I,  infraspinatus ;  t.m,  teres  min- 
or; T.M,  teres  major;  o.t,  outer  head 
of  triceps;  m.t,  middle  head  of  tri- 
ceps; i.t,  inner  head  of  triceps;  O, 
olecranon;  A,  acromion. 


NORMAL  ACTION. — The  teres  major  aids  the  latissimus  dorsi 
in  pulling  the  arm  down  and  back  and  in  rotating  the  humerus  in- 
ward. To  prevent  the  scapula  from  moving  in  response  to  its  pull 
the  rhomboid  always  acts  with  it,  holding  the  lower  end  of  the 
scapula  back  firmly  and  so  giving  the  teres  major  a  solid  point 
of  origin. 


THE  UPPER  LIMB  85 

INFRASPINATUS  AND  TERES  MINOR. 

Two  small  muscles  lying  just  beneath  the  skin  on  the  back  of 
the  shoulder.  (Fig.  40.) 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  surface  of  the  scapula  below  the  spine. 
INSERTION. — The  posterior  part  of  the  greater  tuberosity  of 
the  humerus. 

STRUCTURE. — Slightly  converging  fibers. 
ISOLATED  ACTION. — Rotate  humerus  to  turn  palm  out,  when 
arms  are  at  sides ;  pull  arm  backward  when  raised  to  horizontal. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — These  muscles  are  involved  in  all  move- 
ments in  which  the  palm  is  turned  outward ;  the  same  movement 
is  involved,  when  the  elbow  is  flexed,  in  moving  the  hand  along 
the  table  in  writing  and  in  the  twist  of  the  arm  in  some  forms 
of  throwing.  The  extent  of  the  movement  in  the  shoulder  joint 
is  90  degrees.  When  these  muscles  are  paralyzed  the  palm  is 
turned  inward  and  ability  to  write  and  to  turn  a  screw  driver  is 
nearly  lost. 

SUBSCAPULARIS. 

Named  from  its  position  beneath  the  scapula. 

ORIGIN. — The  whole  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  scapula, 
except  a  small  portion  near  the  glenoid  fossa. 

INSERTION. — The  lesser  tuberosity  of  the  humerus. 
STRUCTURE. — Complex  penniform  arrangement. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Rotation  of  humerus  to  turn  palm  in- 
ward. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — Although  the  subscapularis  is  not  in  a 
position  to  be  felt  when  it  contracts,  its  mechanical  conditions  and 
its  action  when  stimulated,  which  can  be  done  through  its  nerve, 
are  very  plain ;  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  it  takes  part  in  all 
movements  in  which  the  humerus  is  rotated  inward,  as  in  turning 
a  screw  driver,  wringing  a  wet  cloth,  or  throwing ;  it  probably 
acts  also  to  aid  in  swinging  the  arm  forward  when  it  has  been 
raised  to  horizontal  position. 


86  PHYSICAL,    TRAINING 

j.     Movements  of  Elbow,  Forearm,  Wrist,  and  Hand. 

We  have  included  here  a  hinge  j'oint  at  the  elbow,  a  rotary 
union  of  radius  and  ulna  in  the  forearm,  a  condyloid  joint  at  the 
wrist,  and  several  hinge  joints  in  the  hand  and  fingers. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  ELBOW  JOINT. 

The  elbow  is  a  typical  hinge  joint,  the  humerus  articulating 
closely  with  the  ulna  and  slightly  with  the  radius.  The  move- 
ments are  simply  those  of  flexion  and  extension,  taking  place 


FIG.  41.  Bones  of  the  arm.  I,  front  view;  II.  back  view;  H,  humerus; 
U,  ulna;  R,  radius;  b.g,  bicipital  groove;  gr,  greater  tuberosity  of 
humerus;  1,  lesser  tuberosity;  o.c,  outer  condyle;  ic,  inner  condyle; 
O,  olecranon  process ;  b.t,  bicipital  tuberosity  of  the  radius. 

through  an  angle  of  120  to  150  degrees.  Extension  is  limited  by 
the  striking  of  the  olecranon  process  of  the  ulna  against  the  back 
of  the  humerus ;  flexion  is  limited  partly  by  contact  of  the  muscles 
of  the  arm  and  partly  by  the  striking  of  the  coronoid  process  of 
the  ulna  against  the  front  of  the  humerus.  Some  individuals  can 


THE  UPPER  LIMB  87 

overextend  the  elbow,  while  others  are  not  able  to  fully  extend  it. 
Some  of  the  muscles  acting  on  the  elbow  joint  also  act  on  the 
rotary  joint  of  the  forearm,  so  that  it  is  best  to  describe  that  joint 
before  taking  up  the  study  of  the  muscles. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  FOREARM. 

We  have  here  a  double  pivot  joint.  The  radius  rotates  in  a 
ring  of  ligament  at  the  elbow  and  the  radius  and  ulna  describe 
semi-circles  about  each  other  at  the  wrist.  The  ulna  cannot  ro- 
tate at  the  elbow,  and  the  hand  cannot  rotate  on  the  radius  at  the 
wrist,  yet  by  means  of  the  union  of  the  two  bones  with  each  other 
the  hand  can  be  turned  freely  through  an  angle  of  180  degrees. 
This  together  with  the  90  degrees  of  rotation  possible  in  the 
shoulder  joint,  makes  it  possible  to  rotate  the  hand  through  270 
degrees.  The  movements  are  : 

(1)  Turning  the  palm  inward  and  downward  (pronation) 
and 

(2)  Turning  the  palm  inward  and  upward  (supination). 
There  are  five  muscles  acting  on  the  elbow  joint,  named  as 

follows : 

Triceps  Biceps  Brachio-radialis 

Brachialis  Anticus  Pronator  Teres 

TRICEPS. 

The  triceps  is  located  on  the  back  side  of  the  upper  arm,  and, 
as  its  name  signifies,  has  three  points  of  origin.  (Fig.  40  and 
Fig-  33-) 

ORIGIN. — Middle  or  long  head,  from  the  scapula,  just  below 
the  glenoid  fossa ; 

External  head,  from  a  space  on  the  back  of  the  humerus  not 

exceeding  half  an  inch  wide  and  extending  from  the  middle 

of  the  shaft  up  to  lesser  tuberosity ; 

Internal  head,   from  the  lower  part  of  the  back  of  the 

humerus,  over  a  wide  space  extending  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 

length  of  it. 


88  PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 

INSERTION. — By  a  flat  tendon  to  the  end  of  the  olecranon 
process  of  ulna, 

STRUCTURE. — The  long  head  has  a  short  tendon ;  the  fibers 
of  the  other  two  heads  arise  directly  from  the  bone.  The  tendon 
of  insertion,  as  it  leaves  the  ulna,  broadens  into  a  flat  sheet  that 
extends  far  up  on  external  surface  of  the  muscle,  and  the  fibers 
are  attached  in  a  penniform  manner  into  the  deeper  surface  of  it. 
The  long  head  passes  down  between  the  teres  major,  which  lies  in 
front  of  it,  and  the  teres  minor,  which  is  behind  it. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Stimulus  of  the  shorter  heads  cause  vig- 
orous extension  of  the  elbow ;  stimulation  of  the  long  head  causes 
extension  of  the  elbow  with  less  force,  lifts  the  humerus  directly 
into  the  socket  of  the  shoulder  joint,  and  depresses  the  arm. 
Paralysis  of  the  triceps  abolishes  all  power  to  extend  the  elbow. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  triceps  enters  into  contraction  to  aid 
in  all  movements  involving  forcible  extension  of  the  elbow  joint, 
such  as  striking  with  the  fist,  striking  with  a  hammer,  throwing, 
putting  the  shot,  thrusting  dumb  bells,  pushing  a  lawn  mower,  etc. 
The  advantage  of  having  one  end  of  the  triceps  originate  from  the 
scapula  is  seen  in  such  movements  as  striking  downward  with  an 
ax  or  heavy  hammer ;  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  swing  tends  to 
pull  the  head  of  the  humerus  from  the  socket,  and  the  lateral  pull 
of  the  latissimus  dorsi  and  teres  major,  which  always  join  in  such 
movements,  tends  to  do  the  same  thing;  the  pull  of  the  long  head 
of  the  triceps  and  the  coraco-brachialis  holds  the  joint  firmly  in 
its  place  and  at  the  same  time  aids  in  the  depression  of  the  arm. 
When  these  two  muscles  are  lacking  the  head  of  the  humerus  is 
pulled  down  out  of  the  socket  in  all  vigorous  arm  depression. 

BICEPS. 

This  muscle  is  on  the  front  side  of  the  upper  arm  and,  as  its 
name  indicates,  has  two  points  of  origin.  (Fig.  42.) 

ORIGIN. — The  long  or  outer  head,  from  the  top  of  the  glenoid 
fossa ;  the  short  or  inner  head,  from  the  coracoid. 

INSERTION. — The  bicipital  tuberosity  of  the  radius. 


THE  UPPER  LIMB  89 

STRUCTURE. — The  tendon  of  the  long  head  is  long  and 
slender;  it  passes  outward  over  the  head  of  the  humerus,  being 
blended  with  the  capsular  ligament,  and  below  this  lies  in  the 
bicipital  groove,  becoming  muscular  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
groove.  The  short  head  has  a  much  shorter  tendon.  The  tendon 
of  insertion  is  flattened  and  passes  upward  as  a  septum  between 
the  two  parts  of  the  muscle,  which  join  it  in  a  penniform  manner. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Flexion  of  the  elbow  and  supination  of 
the  forearm ;  the  latter  movement  much  stronger  when  elbow  is 
at  a  right  angle. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  biceps  takes  part  in  all  movements 
involving  forcible  flexion  of  the  elbow,  as  in  lifting,  rowing,  etc., 
also  forcible  supination  of  the  forearm,  as  in  turning  a  screw 
driver  to  turn  a  screw  in  with  right  hand  or  out  with  left,  or  in 
wringing  a  wet  cloth ;  when  the  arm  is  raised  sideward  the  biceps, 
by  its  short  head,  aids  in  moving  it  forward.  The  origin  of  the 
biceps  on  the  scapula,  while  it  does  not  make  the  muscle  effective 
to  move  the  shoulder  joint  except  in  the  last  case,  is  of  great  serv- 
ice in  holding  the  head  of  the  humerus  up  in  its  socket,  from  which 
it  would  otherwise  tend  to  be  pulled  by  heavy  lifting;  when  the 
biceps  is  lacking  the  elbow  can  be  flexed  by  other  muscles,  but  if 
there  is  much  to  be  lifted  the  head  of  the  humerus  is  pulled  down- 
ward out  of  the  socket,  causing  pain  which  compels  cessation  of 
the  movement. 

BRACHIO-RADIALIS. 

A  long  slender  muscle  lying  along  the  outer  edge  of  the  fore- 
arm. It  was  named  "Supinator  Longus"  by  the  ancient  anatomists, 
who  entirely  misjudged  its  action.  (Fig.  43.) 

ORIGIN. — The  upper  two-thirds  of  the  external  condyloid 
ridge  of  the  humerus. 

INSERTION. — The  external  surface  of  the  radius  at  its  lower 
end,  near  the  base  of  the  thumb. 

STRUCTURE. — Arising  directly  from  the  humerus,  the  fibers 
are  inserted  in  a  penniform  manner  into  the  tendon  of  insertion, 
which  lies  on  the  deeper  surface  of  the  muscle  for  its  lower  half. 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


FIG.  42.  The  biceps  and  pronator 
teres.  B,  biceps;  T,  pronator 
teres;  L,  long  head;  S,  short 
head ;  p,  tendon  of  pectoralis 
major,  pulled  out  of  place;  t, 
tendon  of  teres  major;  1,  tendon 
of  latissimus  dorsi. 


FIG.  43.  The  brachialis  anticus, 
Coraco-brachialis,  Brachio-rad- 
ialis,  Subscapularis,  and  Prona- 
tor quadratus.  A,  acromion:  C, 
coracoid  ;  S,  subscapularis  ;  Cb, 
coraco-brachialis ;  D,  insertion 
of  deltoid;  H,  humerus;  b.a, 
brachialis  anticus;  b.t,  bicipital 
tuberosity  of  radius;  br,  bra- 
chio-radialis :  U,  ulna;  R,  radi- 
us; P.Q,  pronator  quadratus 


THE  UPPER  LIMB  91 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Vigorous  flexion  of  the  elbow,  with  tend- 
ency to  keep  the  forearm  midway  between  pronation  and  supina- 
tion. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  brachio-ra'dialis  joins  in  all  exercises 
involving  vigorous  flexion  of  the  elbow. 

BRACHIALIS  ANTICUS. 

A  short  muscle  lying  beneath  the  biceps  near  the  elbow  joint. 
(Fig.  43-) 

ORIGIN. — Anterior  surface  of  the  humerus  for  its  lower  half. 

INSERTION. — Anterior  surface  of  the  ulna  near  the  joint,  over 
the  rough  prominence  called  the  coronoid  process. 

STRUCTURE. — The  tendon  of  insertion  flattens  into  a  thin  sheet 
and  the  fibers,  arising  directly  from  the  humerus,  join  its  under 
surface  in  a  penniform  manner. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Flexion  of  the  elbow. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — Involved  in  all  cases  of  forcible  flexion  of 
the  elbow. 

PRONATER  TERES. 

A  small  round  muscle  lying  obliquely  across  the  front  of  the 
elbow  joint.  (Fig.  42.) 

ORIGIN. — The  front  side  of  the  internal  condyle  of  the 
humerus. 

INSERTION. — The  outer  surface  of  the  radius  near  its  middle. 

STRUCTURE. — Fibers  arising  from  bone  and  inserted  penni- 
form. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — To  pronate  the  forearm,  and  when  this 
is  complete,  to  flex  the  elbow. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  pronator  teres  joins  in  all  movements 
of  pronation  and  in  all  flexions  of  the  elbow  when  supination  is 
not  taking  place.  It  aids  by  counteracting  the  supinating  action 
of  the  biceps  when  pure  flexion  is  desired. 


92  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

PRONATOR  QUADRATUS. 

A  thin  square  sheet  of  muscle  lying  deep  under  the  muscles 
of  the  forearm,  on  the  front  side  just  above  the  wrist.  (Fig.  43.) 

ORIGIN. — The  lower  fourth  of  the  front  side  of  the  ulna. 
INSERTION. — The  lower  fourth  of  the  front  side  of  the  radius. 
STRUCTURE. — Parallel  fibers  attached  directly  to  bone. 
ACTION. — Pronation. 

SUPINATOR    BREVIS. 

A  small  muscle  on  the  back  of  the  forearm  near  the  elbow. 

ORIGIN. — External  condyle  of  the  humerus,  neighboring  part 
of  the  ulna,  ligaments  between. 

INSERTION. — The  outer  surface  of  the  upper  third  of  the 
radius. 

STRUCTURE. — Mostly  parallel  fibers. 
ACTION. — Supination. 

MOVEMENTS   OF   WRIST,    HAND,    AND    FINGERS. 

The  human  hand  is  a  complex  mechanism  including  26  bones, 
fifteen  or  twenty  muscles,  and  thirty  or  more  articulations,  but 
the  detail  of  the  structure  and  action  of  this  mechanism  is  beyond 
the  scope  of  a  treatise  on  exercise  for  physical  education,  except 
the  two  movements  of  opening  and  closing  the  hand.  For  our 
purpose  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  and  hand  may  be  divided  into 
two  groups :  the  flexors  and  the  extensors. 

FLEXORS  OF  HAND  AND  WRIST. 

These  muscles  lie  on  the  front  of  the  forearm,  with  small 
associates  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  ball  of  the  thumb.  (F, 
Fig.  44.) 

ORIGIN. — The  inner  condyle  of  the  humerus  and  the  front 
side  of  the  radius  and  ulna. 


THE:  UPPER  UMB 


93 


INSERTION. — The  palmar  side  of  the  bones  of  the  hand  and 
fingers. 

STRUCTURE. — The  main  mass  of  muscle  fibers  is  high  up  on 
the  front  of  the  forearm,  connection  being  made  with  hand  and 


FIG.  44- 


F:  flexors  of  hand  ;  B,  biceps ;  B.R,  brachio- 
radialis;  P.T,  pronator  teces. 


fingers  by  long  slender  tendons  that  are  held  in  small  space  at  the 
wrist  by  a  ring  of  ligament.  Notice  the  deep  groove  on  the  front 
of  the  wrist  for  the  passage  of  these  tendons. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Stimulation  of  the  flexor  muscles  causes 
flexion  of  fingers,  then  of  the  hand,  and  if  still  continued,  flexion 
of  the  wrist. 


94  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

NORMAL,  ACTION. — The  muscles  of  the  front  of  the  forearm 
contract  in  all  movements  involving  vigorous  closing  of  fingers 
and  hand. 

EXTENSORS  OF  HAND  AND  WRIST. 

A  group  of  muscles  similar  to  the  flexors  lying  on  the  back 
of  the  forearm. 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  condyle  of  the  humerus  and  the  back  of 
the  radius  and  ulna. 

INSERTION. — The  back  side  of  the  bones  of  fingers  and  hand. 
STRUCTURE. — Similar  to  flexors. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Extension  of  fingers,  then  hand,  then 
wrist.  Over-extension  of  the  wrist  may  be  produced  as  far  as 
75  degrees. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  extensors  of  hand  and  fingers  have 
little  vigorous  action  in  most  bodily  exercises. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  MECHANISM  OF  THE  LOWER  LIMB. 

Movements  of  the  Hip  Joint. 

The  pelvic  girdle,  which  corresponds  in  a  way  to  the  shoulder 
girdle,  consists  of  three  bones :  the  ilium  above,  the  pubes  below 
and  forward,  and  the  ischium  below  and  backward.  These  bones 
do  not  articulate  with  one  another,  but  in  the  adult  form  one  solid 
bone  which  articulates  with  the  sacrum  and  the  bone  of  the  other 
side  to  form  the  pelvic  basin  or  pelvis.,  These  articulations  be- 
tween the  bones  of  the  pelvis  do  not  permit  of  any  considerable 
movement  in  exercise.  The  socket  of  the  hip  joint  is  at  the  point 
of  junction  of  ilium,  pubes,  and  ischium. 

The  femur  is  the  longest  bone  in  the  body  and  •  articulates 
with  the  pelvis  to  form  the  hip  joint.  This  is  a  ball  and  socket 
joint,  the  head  of  the  femur  fitting  closely  into  the  socket,  which 
is  named  the  acetabulum.  Unlike  the  shoulder  joint,  the  hip  is 
dislocated  with  much  difficulty,  considerable  force  being  required 
to  draw  the  ball  out  of  the  socket,  even  when  the  muscles  and 
ligaments  are  not  holding  it  in  its  place. 

The  movements  of  the  hip  joint  correspond  quite  closely  with 
those  of  the  shoulder  joint,  and  are  similarly  named: 

(1)  Swinging  the  limb  forward  (flexion)  ; 

(2)  Swinging  it  backward  from  the  flexed  position   (ex- 
tension) ; 

(3)  Swinging  it  away  from  the  other  limb  (abduction)  ; 

(4)  Swinging  it  toward  the  other  limb  (adduction)  ; 

(5)  These  four  movements  in  succession,  moving  the  foot 

in  a  circle  (circumduction)  ; 

(6)  Turning  the  limb  on  its  longitudinal  axis  (rotation). 

Flexion  of  the  hip  is  very  free,  being  limited  only  by  contact 
.of  the  limb  with  the  front  of  the  trunk  when  the  knee  is  also 


96  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

flexed ;  if  the  knee  is  extended  the  movement  is  usually  less  than 
90  degrees,  for  reasons  that  will  be  evident  later.  Extension  is 
limited  by  the  "inverted  Y"  ligament,  a  thick  band  of  fibers  on  the 
front  side  of  the  capsular  ligament  of  the  joint ;  this  ligament  pre- 
vents all  over-extension  of  the  hip  joint  in  normal  individuals. 


FIG.  45.  Bones  of  the  lower  limb.  Out- 
er side  on  the  right,  inner  side  on  the 
left.  A,  head  of  femur;  B,  greater 
trochanter ;  C,  lesser  trochanter ;  D, 
shaft  of  femur;  E,  condyles  of  fe- 
mur: F,  head  of  fibula;  G,  head  of 
tibia;  H,  outer  malleolus;  J,  inner 
malleolus;  P,  patella. 

Abduction  is  quite  variable,  some  being  able  to  abduct  the  limb 
through  90  degrees  and  others  not  more  than  45,  the  difference 
being  in  the  length  of  ligaments  and  muscles.  Adduction  is  lim- 
ited by  contact  with  the  other  limb.  Rotation  is  possible  to  90 
degrees  in  the  extended  position  and  a  little  more  in  the  flexed 
position. 


THE   LOWER   LIMB  97 

MUSCLES  ACTING  ON  THE  HIP  JOINT. 

There  are  sixteen  large  muscles  and  a  group  of  six  small  ones 
acting  on  the  hip  joint.  They  are  conveniently  classified  for  our 
purposes  as  follows : 

MAINLY  FLEXORS  :  Psoas,  iliacus,  sartorius,  rectus  femoris, 
pectineus,  tensor  vaginae  femoris. 

MAINLY  EXTENSORS:  glutens  maximus,  biceps,  semitendi- 
nosus,  semimembranosus. 

MAINLY  ABDUCTORS  :    gluteus  medius,  gluteus  minimus. 

MAINLY  ADDUCTORS:   gracilis,  longus,  brevis,  magnus. 

OUTWARD  ROTATORS  :  pyriformis,  obturator  internus,  obtura- 
tor externus,  gemellus  inferior,  gemellus  superior,  quadratus 
femoris. 

PSOAS. 

The  greater  part  of  the  psoas  lies  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdominal  cavity  behind  the  internal  organs,  where  its  action  can- 
not be  observed.  It  is  rather  long  and  slender,  and  is  usually  ac- 
companied by  a  small  and  undeveloped  companion,  the  psoas  par- 
vus.  (Fig.  46.) 

ORIGIN. — The  sides  of  the  bodies  of  the  twelfth  dorsal  and 
all  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae. 

INSERTION. — The  lower  and  back  part  of  the  lesser  trochanter 
of  the  femur. 

STRUCTURE. — Fibers  arising  directly  from  the  bones,  penni- 
form  attachment  to  the  tendon  of  insertion. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Too  deeply  covered  to  admit  of  stimu- 
lation. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — While  the  psoas  is  too  deep  to  be  felt  when 
it  contracts,  which  is  the  only  absolute  proof  of  normal  action, 
yet  its  mechanical  conditions  and  its  association  with  the  iliacus 
make  it  likely  that  it  enters  into  all  movements  of  vigorous  flexion 
of  the  hip.  It  is  especially  calculated  to  act  in  movements  where 
the  hip  and  trunk  are  flexed  at  the  same  time,  as  when  one  hangs 
by  the  hands  and  then  lifts  the  knees  to  the  chest. 


98 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


FIG.  46.  Psoas,  iliacus,  pectineus,_  and 
quadratus  lumborum.  P,  psoas ;  I,  ili- 
acus; Q,  Quadratus  lumborum;  Pect, 
pectineus ;  f,  femur;  s,  sacrum;  c.i, 
crest  of  ilium;  G.tr,  greater  trochan- 
ter. 


FIG.  47.  Muscles  of  the  front  of 
the  thigh.  P,  psoas;  II,  iliacus; 
T,  tensor ;  p,  pectineus ;  1,  ad- 
ductor longus;  g,  adductor  gra- 
cilis;  S  sartorius;  R,  rectusfe- 
moris;  E,  vastus  externus;  In, 
vastus  internus ;  pt.  patella ;  c.p., 
crest  of  pubes;  c.i,  crest  of  ili- 
um. 

ILIACUS. 

Named  from  the  bone  to  which  it  is  attached.     (Fig.  46.) 
ORIGIN. — The  inner  surface  of  the  ilium  and  a  part  of  the 

inner  surface  of  the  sacrum  close  to  the  ilium. 

INSERTION. — The  tendon  of  the  psoas,  just  where  the  latter 

crosses  the  front  edge  of  the  pelvis. 


THE:  LOWER  LIMB  99 

STRUCTURE. — Fibers  arising  directly  from  the  bone,  converg- 
ing and  joining  the  psoas  tendon  in  a  penniform  manner. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Stimulation  of  the  iliacus,  sometimes  pos- 
sible through  a  thin  abdominal  wall,  causes  flexion  of  the  hip  and 
outward  rotation  of  the  limb,  the  latter  with  little  force. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  iliacus  comes  into  action  along  with 
the  psoas  in  all  movements  which,  like  walking  and  running,  in- 
volve flexion  of  the  hip  joint. 

SARTORIUS. 

Latin  for  "tailors'  muscle",  because  the  ancient  anatomists 
wrongly  attributed  to  it  the  crossing  of  the  legs  in  the  manner  of 
oriental  tailors  at  their  work.  It  is  the  longest  muscle  of  the 
body.  (Fig.  47.) 

ORIGIN. — The  lower  side  of  the  anterior  superior  spine  of 
the  ilium  and  the  upper  part  of  the  notch  below  it. 

INSERTION. — Front  part  of  the  interior  surface  of  the  tibia, 
along  with  the  gracilis  and  the  semitendinosus. 

STRUCTURE. — Parallel  fibers  extending  the  whole  length  of  the 
muscle.  The  middle  of  the  sartorius  is  so  firmly  imbedded  in  a 
sheath  of  connective  tissue  called  the  fascia  of  the  thigh  that  its 
upper  and  lower  halves  can  act  independently  of  one  another. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Stimulation  of  the  sartorius,  when  the 
subject  is  standing  with  the  weight  on  the  other  foot,  causes 
flexion  of  the  hip  and  flexion  of  the  knee  at  the  same  time,  with 
little  tendency  to  rotate  the  hip  in  either  direction. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  sartorius  is  employed  constantly  in 
walking,  in  which  it  is  able  to  lift  the  foot  as  one  always  does  in 
beginning  a  step.  (Fig.  50.) 

RECTUS  FEMORIS. 

This  is  a  large  muscle  named  from  its  position  straight  down 
the  front  of  the  thigh.  It  corresponds  closely  to  the  long  head  of 
the  triceps,  being  the  middle  part  of  the  three-headed  extensor  of 
the  knee.  (Fig.  47.) 


ioo  PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 


upper  border  of  the  patella. 

STRUCTURE:.  —  The  upper  tendon  passes  down  the  middle  of 
the  muscle  while  the  lower  tendon  is  a  flat  aponetirosis  extending 
up  on  its  deeper  surface.  The  fibers  are  short,  crossing  obliquely 
between  the  tendons,  giving  the  muscle  great  power  and  small 
range. 

ISOLATED  ACTION.  —  Flexion  of  the  hip  and  extension  of  the 
knee  with  great  force.  Either  movement  is  much  more  powerful 
if  the  other  is  prevented  from  taking  place. 

NORMAL  ACTION.—  The  rectus  femoris  takes  part  in  most 
movements  of  flexion  of  the  hip  and  of  extension  of  the  knee. 
It  is  especially  useful  in  combinations  of  these  two,  as  in  kicking. 
It  is  in  fact  the  only  muscle  able  to  perform  this  movement  alone. 
and  so  can  properly  be  called  "the  kicking  muscle".  It  contracts 
in  walking  to  help  extend  the  knee  on  the  side  supporting  the 
weight,  but  does  not  aid  in  swinging  the  leg  forward,  since  it 
cannot  flex  the  hip  without  extending  the  knee.  (Fig.  53.) 

PECTINEUS. 

A  short  and  thick  muscle  of  the  front  of  the  thigh  which  can 
alone  give  the  combination  of  flexion  and  adduction  employed  in 
crossing  one  limb  over  the  other  while  sitting,  the  movement  at- 
tributed by  early  anatomists  to  the  sartorius.  (Fig  46.) 

ORIGIN.  —  The  front  side  of  the  pubes,  just  below  the  rim  of 
the  pelvic  basin. 

INSERTION.  —  The  back  side  of  the  femur,  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  lesser  trochanter  and  extending  about  two  inches  below  it. 

STRUCTURE.  —  Penniform  arrangement,  both  ends  of  the  mus- 
cle having  fleshy  and  tendinous  fibers  intermingled.  The  muscle 
is  twisted  about  90  degrees  as  it  passes  downward. 

ISOLATED  ACTION.  —  Flexion  with  considerable  force,  adduc- 
tion with  less  force,  and  slight  outward  rotation. 

NORMAL  ACTION.  —  The  pectineus  takes  part  in  all  vigorous 
flexion  or  adduction  of  the  hip.  It  is  the  one  muscle  able  to  lift 
the  knee  and  cross  it  over  the  other  while  sitting,  without  the  aid 
of  other  muscles. 


THE    LOWER    UME  (  \   ;f,OI 

TENSOR  VAGINA   FEMORIS. 

A  small  muscle  situated  at  the  front  and  side  of  the  thigh, 
its  name  indicating  that  it  tightens  the  sheath  or.  fascia  of  the 
thigh.  It  is  peculiar  among  muscles  in  having  no  bony  insertion, 
the  fibers  attaching  to  the  thick  layer  of  fascia  that  envelopes  the 
thigh.  (Fig.  47.) 

ORIGIN. — The  notch  between  the  two  anterior  spines  of  the 
ilium. 

INSERTION. — The  fascia  of  the  thigh,  one-fourth  of  the  way 
from  the  crest  of  the  ilium  to  the  knee. 

STRUCTURE. — Tendinous  sheet  at  the  origin,  parallel  fibers, 
penniform  insertion  into  two  layers  of  the  fascia,  one  lying  be- 
neath the  muscle  and  the  other  to  the  outside. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Flexion  and  abduction  of  the  thigh,  the 
former  predominating,  with  rotation  to  turn  the  toes  inward. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  tensor  acts  strongly  in  walking,  along 
with  the  psoas,  iliacus,  and  sartorius ;  it  joins  with  the  other  mus- 
cles studied  in  all  vigorous  flexion  of  the  hip,  and  especially  when 
there  is  abduction  at  the  same  time ;  it  also  acts  in  movements  of 
pure  abduction.  Persons  lacking  this  muscle  always  turn  the  toes 
far  out  in  walking,  except  when  they  think  of  it;  they  can  with 
effort  prevent  the  outward  rotation  by  using  other  muscles. 
(Fig.  50.) 

GLUTEUS  MAXIM  us. 

A  very  large  fleshy  muscle  at  the  back  of  the  hip.     (Fig.  48.) 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  surface  of  the  ilium  along  the  posterior 
one-fifth  of  its  crest,  the  posterior  surface  of  the  sacrum  close  to 
its  junction  with  the  ilium,  and  the  fascia  of  the  lumbar  region. 

INSERTION. — A  rough  line  about  two  inches  long  extending 
vertically  down  the  back  side  of  the  femur,  its  middle  being  on  a 
level  with  the  lesser  trochanter. 

STRUCTURE. — Fibers  arising  directly  from  the  ilium  and  sac- 
rum and  making  an  oblique  junction  with  the  tendon  of  insertion, 
which  is  a  flat  sheet  running  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  muscle. 


102 


TRAINING 


C.L  . 


/ 


FIG.  48.  Gluteus  maximus,  medius.  and  minimus,  adductors  gracilis 
and  brevis.  G.M,  gluteus  maximus ;  g.m,  gluteus  medius ;  A.g. 
adductor  gracilis;  A.b,  adductor  brevis;  S,  sacrum;  c.i,  crest  of 
ilium;  t.i,  tuberosity  of  ischium;  f,  femur;  T,  tibia. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Powerful  extension  of  the  hip  accom- 
panied with  slight  outward  rotation  of  the  femur,  the  latter  with 
little  force.  There  was  for  centuries  disagreement  among  anato- 
mists as  to  the  action  of  this  muscle  until  electric  stimulation  was 
used  to  determine  it.  Persons  who  have  lost  the  use  of  the 
gluteus  maximus  cannot  climb  stairs  or  walk  up  a  steep  incline, 
and  can  rise  from  a  chair  with  difficulty. 


THE   LOWER   LIMB  103 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  gluteus  maximus  takes  part  in  all 
such  exercises  as  running,  jumping,  climbing,  etc.,  where  the  hip 
is  flexed  to  a  considerable  angle  and  then  extended ;  exercises  like 
walking,  in  which  the  hip  is  but  little  flexed,  are  performed  with- 
out it,  as  one  can  easily  discover  upon  himself.  This  is  a  pecu- 
liarity in  the  nervous  control  of  the  gluteus  maximus;  like  the 
serratus  magnus,  it  is  not  habitually  contracted  in  some  cases 
where  its  mechanical  conditions  would  enable  it  to  help  if  it  were 
used.  (Fig.  65.) 

SEMITENDINOSUS. 

Named  from  its  long  tendon  of  insertion,  which  reaches  half 
way  up  the  thigh ;  it  is  the  first  of  three  muscles  known  as  "the 
ham-string  group."  (Fig.  49.) 

ORIGIN. — The  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

INSERTION. — The  front  part  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  tibia, 
along  with  the  sartorius  and  the  adductor  gracilis. 

STRUCTURE. — A  flat  tendon  two  inches  long  joins  the  fibers  to 
the  ischium ;  the  tendon  of  insertion  receives  these  fibers  in  a 
penniform  manner  for  about  four  inches  of  its  length  just  about 
the  middle  of  the  thigh ;  the  tendon  below  this  is  round  and  just 
under  the  skin. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Flexion  of  the  knee  and  extension  of  the 
hip ;  either  is  much  more  powerful  if  the  other  movement  is  pre- 
vented. When  the  knee  joint  is  flexed  to  a  right  angle  or  more 
the  semitendinosus  can  rotate  the  toes  inward,  but  this  movement 
is  of  little  importance  compared  with  its  other  actions. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  semitendinosus,  along  with  the  other 
muscles  of  the  hamstring  group,  are  the  principal  muscles  involved 
in  extension  of  the  hip  in  walking  and  other  mild  exercises;  they 
take  part  in  all  the  more  vigorous  extensions  of  the  hip,  such  as 
running,  jumping,  climbing,  lifting,  etc. ;  they  also  help  to  flex 
the  knee  as  the  foot  is  raised  from  the  ground  in  walking  and 
running. 


104 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


SEMIMEMBRANOSUS. 


Named  from  its  shape,  which  is  that  of  a  knife  with  a  thin 
and  membranous  edge.  It  lies  beside  the  semitendinosus.  (Fig. 
49-) 


-Q 


Fie.  49.  Muscles  of  back  of  low- 
er limb.  B,  biceps ;  Sm,  semi- 
membranosus ;  St,  semitendino- 
sus ;  G,  gastrocuemius  ;  R,  three 
of  the  outward  rotators ;  T,  tu- 
berosity  of  the  ischium;  S,  sa- 


ORIGIN. — The  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

INSERTION. — The  inner  and  back  side  of  the  inner  tuberosity 
of  the  tibia,  close  to  its  upper  edge. 

STRUCTURE. — The  upper  tendon  extends  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  thigh  and  the  lower  tendon  up  to  nearly  the  same  level ;  the 


THE   LOWER   LIMB  105 

muscular  fibers,  which  are  comparatively  short,  extend  diagonally 
across  from  one  tendon  to  the  other.  The  long  upper  tendon 
brings  the  bulk  of  the  fibers  below  those  of  the  semitendinosus,  so 
that  the  two  muscles  do  not'  crowd  each  other  as  they  contract. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Powerful  extension  of  hip  with  little  ef- 
fect on  the  knee,  except  the  rotary  action  when  the  knee  is  flexed 
to  90  degrees. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — A  companion  of  the  preceding  in  all  move- 
ments of  extension  of  the  hip. 

BICEPS. 

Named  from  its  double  origin ;  forms  the  outer  division  of 
the  hamstring.  (Fig.  49.) 

ORIGIN. — The  long  head,  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium ; 
the  short  head,  from  the  lower  half  of  the  linea  aspera. 

INSERTION. — The  outer  tuberosity  of  the  tibia  and  the  head 
of  the  fibula. 

STRUCTURE. — The  upper  tendon  is  rather  long  and  serves  as 
a  septum  between  the  biceps  and  the  semimembranosus ;  the  lower 
tendon  is  flat  and  extends  half  way  up  the  thigh ;  the  muscular 
fibers  of  the  two  parts  of  the  muscle  join  the  lower  tendon  in  a 
penniform  manner  just  below  the  middle  of  the  thigh. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Powerful  extension  of  hip  and  flexion 
of  knee,  without  outward  rotation  in  knee  joint  after  flexion  to  90 
degrees. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  hamstring  muscles  act  together  in  the 
extension  of  hip  and  flexion  of  knee,  as  before  mentioned. 

GLUTEUS  MEDIUS. 

This  muscle  gives  the  rounded  contour  that  is  found  at  the 
side  of  the  hip.  (Fig.  48  and  Fig.  50.) 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  surface  of  the  ilium  near  the  crest. 
INSERTION. — The  top  of  the  greater  trochanter  of  the  femur. 


io6 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


FIG.  50.     Knee  raising.     R,  rectus  femoris;  V.I,  vastus  interims;  S,  sar- 
torius;  G.Med,  glutens  medius;  V.E,  vastus  externus;  T,  tensor. 


THE  LOWER  'LIMB  .     107 

STRUCTURE. — Fibers  arising  from  the  bone  are  inserted 
obliquely  into  both  sides  of  the  flat  tendon  of  insertion.  The  front 
part  of  the  muscle  is  the  thicker  and  stronger. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Stimulation  of  the  gluteus  medius,  given 
when  the  limb  is  free  to  move,  causes  strong  abduction.  Paralysis 
of  this  muscle  permits  the  opposite  side  of  the  pelvis  to  drop  when 
unsupported,  and  in  walking  the  limb  is  apt  to  strike  the  other 
one  as  it  moves  forward 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  gluteus  medius  is  in  action  in  walk- 
ing, running,  and  in  all  movements  in  which  the  body  is  supported 
for  a  time  on  one  limb,  to  support  the  opposite  side  of  the  pelvis. 
It  is  brought  into  most  vigorous  action  in  running  and  jumping, 
where  the  weight  of  the  whole  body  is  received  on  one  foot  from  a 
height.  It  of  course  abducts  the  limb  in  leg  raising  sideward. 
In  walking  the  front  edge  enters  into  contraction  first,  thus  help- 
ing to  swing  the  opposite  side  of  pelvis  forward. 

GLUTEUS  MINIMUS. 

A  somewhat  smaller  muscle  just  beneath  the  preceding. 

ORIGIN. — The  lower  part  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  ilium. 

INSERTION. — The  top  of  the  greater  trochanter. 

STRUCTURE. — Fibers  arise  directly  from  the  bone  to  converge 
into  the  flat  tendon  of  insertion. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — The  same  as  the  medius. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  gluteus  minimus  joins  the  gluteus 
medius  and  the  tensor  vaginae  femoris  in  all  movements  of  abduc- 
tion of  the  hip  joint,  both  when  the  limb  is  free  to  move  and  when 
it  is  supporting  the  weight. 

ADDUCTOR  GRACILIS. 

A  slender  muscle  passing  down  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh. 
(Fig.  48.) 

ORIGIN. — The  inner  edge  of  the  ramus  of  pubes  and  ischium. 

INSERTION. — The  inner  surface  of  the  tibia,  along  with  the 
sartorius  and  the  semitendinosus. 


I08  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

STRUCTURE. — A  thin,  flat  tendon  above,  fibers  almost  parallel 
but  converging  as  they  pass  downward ;  round  tendon  below. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Adduction  of  limb  and  flexion  of  knee. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  adductor  gracilis  joins  in  all  exercises 
involving  adduction  of  the  thigh  and  flexion  of  the  knee. 

ADDUCTOR  LONGUS. 

Lies  just  to  the  inner  side  of  the  pectineus.     (Fig.  47.) 

ORIGIN. — Front  of  the  pubes,  just  below  the  crest. 

INSERTION. — The  linea  aspera,  in  the  middle  third  of  the 
thigh. 

STRUCTURE. — A  thick  triangular  sheet  arising  by  a  short 
round  tendon  and  diverging  fan-wise,  attaching  to  the  femur  by 
an  aponeurosis. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Adduction  and  flexion  of  the  hip  joint ; 
the  flexion  is  not  enough  to  make  the  adducted  limb  pass  in  front 
of  the  other,  as  is  the  case  with  the  pectineus. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  adductor  longus  takes  part  in  all  move- 
ments like  walking  and  running,  that  involve  combined  flexion 
and  adduction  of  the  thigh ;  it  also  acts  in  vigorous  adduction  or 
vigorous  flexion. 

ADDUCTOR  BREVIS. 

A  short  muscle  beneath  the  longus.     (Fig.  48.) 

ORIGIN. — The  front  of  the  pubes  and  a  part  of  the  ramus, 
just  below  the  origin  of  the  longus. 

INSERTION. — The  upper  half  of  the  linea  aspera. 

STRUCTURE. — A  fan-shaped  sheet  similar  to  the  longus  but 
shorter. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Never  investigated. 

ADDUCTOR  MAGNUS. 

One  of  the  largest  muscles  of  the  body,  situated  beneath 
the  gracilis  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh.  ( Fig.  51.) 


THE  LOWER   UMB 


I09 


ORIGIN.— The  front  of  the  pubes,  the  tuberosity  of  the 
ischium,  and  the  whole  length  of  the  ramus  connecting  these  two 
bones. 

INSERTION. — The  whole  length  of  the  linea  aspera  and  the 
inner  condyloid  line. 


FJG.  51.  Adductor  magnus.  P, 
pubes;  I,  ischium;  R,  ramus;  F, 
femur;  I,,  linea  aspera. 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  from  the  pubes  and  the  front  part  of 
the  ramus  pass  in  a  nearly  horizontal  direction  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  linea  aspera,  much  like  the  adductor  brevis;  this  arising 
farther  back  pass  lower ;  the  fibers  from  the  tuberosity  of  the 
ischium  are  inserted  on  the  condyloid  line  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
femur. 


110  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

ISOLATED  ACTION.  —  The  whole  muscle  acting  together  gives 
direct  and  powerful  adduction;  the  front  and  upper  fibers  give 
some  rotation  inward;  the  lower  fibers  give  extension  and  rota- 
tion outward. 

NORMAL  ACTION.  —  The  adductor  magnus  joins  with  the  other 
adductors  in  the  movement  their  name  indicates  ;  in  addition  to  this 
the  lower  and  most  posterior  fibers,  which  make  up  a  large  part 
of  the  bulk  of  the  muscle,  aid  in  all  movements  of  extension  of  the 
hip,  entering  actively  into  walking,  running,  and  jumping.  Per- 
sons whose  adductors  are  weak  or  lacking  swing  the  limb  forward 
and  outward  as  they  walk. 


SIX  OUTWARD  ROTATORS. 

A  group  of  small  muscles  beneath  the  gluteus  maximus. 

ORIGIN.  —  The  inner  and  back  sides  of  the  pelvis. 

INSERTION.  —  The  greater  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

STRUCTURE.  —  Many  kinds. 

ISOLATED  ACTION.  —  The  six  muscles  unite  to  turn  the  femur 
outward  or  the  opposite  side  of  the  pelvis  backward  ;  individually, 
some  of  them  act  slightly  in  other  movements. 

NORMAL  ACTION.  —  The  six  outward  rotators  do  most  of  the 
work  of  turning  the  toes  outward  or  the  opposite  side  of  the  pelvis 
backward,  according  to  which  side  is  free  to  move. 

INWARD  ROTATION. 

Inward  rotation  in  the  hip  joint  is  performed  mainly  by  the 
gluteus  medius  and  minimus,  the  tensor  vaginae  femoris,  and  the 
adductors  brevis  and  longus  ;  this  is  the  same  movement  as  turning 
the  opposite  side  of  the  pelvis  forward.  Rotation  inward  is  in- 
volved in  many  forms  of  bodily  exercise,  as  in  striking  a  blow  with 
the  fist,  throwing,  batting  in  baseball,  putting  the  shot,  throwing 
the  hammer  and  discus,  the  lunge  in  fencing,  and  many  others. 
Outward  rotation  is  sometimes  involved  in  these  exercises  but 
not  so  frequently  as  the  opposite. 


THE   I/)WER   IvIMB  III 

Movements  of  the  Knee  Joint. 

The  knee  joint  is  the  largest  and  most  complicated  joint  in 
the  body,  the  two  condyles  of  the  femur  articulating  with  the  two 
tuberosities  of  the  tibia,  forming  two  separate  points  of  contact. 
On  the  top  of  each  tuberosity  is  a  cartilage  upon  which  the  con- 
dyles move..  There  is  present  the  usual  capsular  ligament  sur- 
rounding the  joint,  the  patella  lying  between  its  layers  and  the  ten- 
don of  the  extensor  muscles  forming  a  part  of  it.  Besides  the 
ligaments  forming  the  capsule  there  are  two  ligaments  called  the 
crucial  ligaments  within  the  joint  and  acting  to  limit  its  motion. 
The  knee  acts  much  like  a  hinge  joint,  permitting  only  flexion  and 
extension,  excepting  in  the  position  of  flexion  of  90  degrees  or 
more,  when  rotation  is  possible.  This  is  readily  demonstrated  by 
anyone  upon  himself.  In  standing  erect  on  one  foot  one  can 
easily  rotate  the  free  limb,  but  the  rotation  is  all  in  the  hip  joint; 
when  he  sits  in  a  chair,  with  the  knees  flexed  to  a  right  angle 
or  more,  the  toes  can  be  easily  turned  in  and  out,  the  rotation  now 
taking  place  in  the  knee.  As  in  case  of  the  elbow,  there  is  some 
difference  in  individuals  as  to  the  possibility  of  extension  or  slight 
over-extension;  usually  the  knee  is  slightly  over-extended  when 
one  stands  erect,  and  the  extensor  muscles  remain  relaxed  as  long 
as  the  poise  is  not  disturbed.  See  figure  104,  page  206. 

The  patella  glides  up  and  down  in  the  notch  in  front  of  the 
two  condyles  as  the  joint  is  flexed  and  extended. 

The  movements  of  the  knee  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

(1)  Flexion,  taking  place  through  130  to  150  degrees; 

(2)  Extension; 

(3)  Rotation  to  turn  the  toes  inward; 

(4)  Rotation  to  turn  the  toes  outward. 

The  latter  two  are  possible  only  when  the  joint  is  flexed  to 
more  than  90  degrees. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

i.  Point  out  on  an  unmounted  tibia  the  two  tuberosities,  the 
tubercle  where  the  patellar  ligament  joins  it,  and  the  prominence 


ii2  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

that  forms  the  inner  malleolus  of  the  ankle ;  tell  which  is  the  inner 
side  of  the  bone  and  which  the  outer  side ;  and  whether  it  belongs 
to  the  right  or  left  limb. 

MUSCLES  ACTING  ON  THE  KNEE  JOINT. 

The  muscles  acting  on  the  knee  joint  are  naturally  classified 
in  four  groups  as  follows : 

Flexors  :  Semitendinosus,  semimembranosus,  biceps,  sartori- 
us,  gracilis. 

Extensors:  Rectus  femoris,  vastus  externus,  vastus  internus. 

Rotators  inward:  Semitendinosus,  semimembranosus,  sar- 
torius,  gracilis. 

Rotators  outward :  Biceps. 

All  of  these  muscles  but  two  have  been  studied  in  connection 
with  the  actions  of  the  hip  joint. 

VASTUS  EXTERNUS. 

A  large  muscle  on  the  outer  side  of  the  thigh,  forming  the 
rounded  contour  that  stands  out  half  way  down  the  thigh.  (Fig. 

52.) 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  surface  of  the  femur  just  below  the 
greater  trochanter,  and  the  upper  half  of  the  linea  aspera. 

INSERTION. — The  upper  half  of  the  upper  border  of  the 
patella. 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  arise  in  part  directly  from  the  bone 
and  in  part  from  a  flat  tendon  of  origin  that  covers  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the  muscle ;  the  tendon  of  insertion 
is  a  flat  sheet  lying  on  its  deeper  surface ;  the  fibers  cross  obliquely 
from  one  sheet  to  the  other,  giving  the  muscle  great  power  with 
small  range. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Powerful  extension  of  the  knee,  pulling 
the  patella  outward. 

NORMAL  ACTION.— The  vastus  externus  comes  into  vigorous 
action  in  all  exercises  involving  extension  of  the  knee  while  the 


THE   LOWER  UMB 


FIG.  52.  The  yastus  externus  and  the  vastus  internus. 
B,  back  view;  F  front  view;  E.  externus;  I,  in- 
ternus; R,  rectus;  P,  patella. 


114  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

subject  is  on  the  feet,  as  in  running,  jumping,  knee  flexion  and  ex- 
tension while  standing  on  one  or  both  feet,  fallouts  and  lunges, 
etc.  (Fig.  53.) 

VASTUS  INTERNUS, 

This  muscle  is  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh,  somewhat  lower 
than  the  externus.  It  is  sometimes  considered  as  two  separate 
muscles,  the  deeper  part  being  called  the  crureus,  but  for  our  pur- 
poses this  division  has  no  advantage.  (Fig.  52.) 

ORIGIN.— The  front  side  of  the  shaft  of  the  femur  and  the 
whole  length  of  the  linea  aspera. 

INSERTION. — The  inner  half  of  the  upper  border  of  the 
patella. 

STRUCTURE.— The  fibers  arise  from  the  shaft  of  the  bone  and 
a  flat  tendon  from  the  linea  aspera  and  join  the  tendon  of  insertion 
in  a  penniform  manner,  the  lower  tendon  being  a  flat  sheet  lying 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  muscle. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Same  as  for  the  externus  except  that  the 
patella  is  drawn  inward.  Persons  lacking  the  extensors  of  the 
knee  can  stand  erect  but  cannot  walk  or  run  without  falling. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  vastus  internus  works  normally  with 
the  externus  and  the  rectus  femoris,  just  as  the  three  parts  of  the 
triceps  of  the  arm  work  together,  in  the  movements  mentioned 
under  the  preceding.  (Fig.  53.) 

Movements  of  the  Foot. 

The  weight  of  the  body  is  supported  by  the  foot,  which  con- 
sists of  26  bones  so  combined  as  to  form  two  arches,  touching  the 
ground  at  three  points.  The  bones  of  the  foot  are  classified  as 
follows : 

(1)  Seven   tarsal   bones:     astragalus,    calcaneum,    cuboid, 

scaphoid,  and  three  cuneiform  bones ;   . 

(2)  Five  metatarsal  bones,  numbered  from  within  outward; 

(3)  Fourteen  phalanges,  three  for  each  toe  except  the  first, 

which  has  but  two.     (Fig.  54.) 


LOWER  LIMB 


FIG.  53.    Inclining  backward  from  sitting  position.    S,  sartorius ;'  R,  rectus 
femoris;  V.E,  vastus  externus;  V.I,  vastus  internus ;  T,  tensor. 


n6 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


FIG.  54.  Skeleton  of  the  foot.  Upper  figure,  view  from  above ;  lower 
figure,  view  from  below.  T,  tibia;  F,  fibula;  A,  astragalus;  Cal,  cal- 
caneum;  Cub,  cuboid;  S,  scaphoid;  1,  2,  3,  the  three  cuneiform  bones; 
M,  the  metatarsals. 


The  principal  movements  of  the  foot  are  as  follows : 

(1)  Lifting  the  toes  and  foot  (flexion)  ; 

(2)  Depressing  the  toes  and  foot  (extension)  ; 

(3)  Turning  the  sole  of  the  foot  inward  (adduction)  ; 

(4)  Turning  the  sole  of  the  foot  outward  (abduction). 


THE  LOWER   UMB  117 

These  movements  of  the  foot  result  from  movements  taking 
place  in  the  ankle  joint  and  in  several  joints  within  the  foot  itself. 

The  ankle  is  a  hinge  joint  in  which  the  tibia  rests  upon  and 
articulates  with  the  astragalus,  while  a  projecting  process  of  the 
tibia  and  the  lower  end  of  the  fibula  reach  past  on  each  side,  giv- 


FIG.  55.     Side  view  of  foot,  showing  the  position  of  the  plantar  ligaments, 
which  are  indicated  in  white. 


ing  firmness  to  the  joint  and  forming  the  two  rounded  prominences 
called  the  inner  and  the  outer  malleolus.  The  ankle  can  be  flexed 
and  extended  through  about  45  degrees ;  no  other  movements  are 
possible  in  the  ankle-  There  is  ho  rotation  between  the  tibia  and 
fibula,  like  that  between  the  radius  and  ulna ;  the  axes  of  the  knee 
and  ankle  joints  are  parallel,  so  that  the  flexed  knee  points  the 
same  wav  as  the  toes. 


118  PHYSICAL,    TRAINING 

There  is  a  complex  series  of  joints  between  the  tarsal  bones 
and  between  them  and  the  metatarsals  which  permit  some  flexion 
and  extension  and  all  the  adduction  and  abduction.  Flexion  and 
extension  of  the  foot  are  therefore  movements  taking  place  in  all 
the  joints  of  the  foot,  including  the  ankle,  while  the  other  two 
movements  take  place  in  the  tarsal  joints  only. 

The  main  arch  passes"  under  the  foot  transversely,  the  heel 
(calcaneum)  forming  its  rear  base  and  the  broad  part  of  the  foot 
at  the  front  end  of  the  metatarsal  bones  (the  ball  of  the  foot) 
forming  its  front  base.  The  arch  is  largest  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  foot  and  is  also  weakest  there,  because  the  two  principal  liga- 
ments for  supporting  this  arch,  the  short  and  long  plantar  liga- 
ments, connect  the  calcaneum  with  the  cuboid  and  the  last  meta- 
tarsals with  no  corresponding  connection  with  the  scaphoid  and 
the  bones  of  the  inner  margin.  There  are  smaller  and  weaker  liga- 
ments there,  but  the  main  support  for  the  inner  side  of  the  arch 
is  supplied  by  muscular  contraction. 

The  second  arch  is  at  right  angles  to  the  first  and  in  front  of 
it,  having  as  its  bases  the  front  ends  of  the  first  and  fifth  meta- 
tarsals. This  arch,  like  the  inner  end  of  the  other  arch,  derives  its 
main  support  from  muscles. 

MUSCLES  ACTING  ON  THE  FOOT. 

The  principal  muscles  acting  on  the  foot  may  be  classified 
as  follows : 

Mainly  flexors:  tibialis  anticus,  extensor  longus  digitorum, 
extensor — proprius  hallucis. 

Mainly  extensors :  gastrocnemius,  soleus,  peroneus  longus. 

Mainly  adductor :  tibialis  posticus. 

Mainly  abductor :  peroneus  brevis. 

TIBIAUS  ANTICUS. 

Named  from  the  tibia  and  from  its  position  on  the  front  of 
the  leg.  (Fig.  56.) 

ORIGIN. — The  upper  two-thirds  of  the  front  side  of  the  tibia 
and  of  the  interosseous  membrane. 


THE:  LOWER  LIMB 


119 


FIG  56.  Flexors  of  Ankle.  T, 
tibia;  T.a,  tibialis  anticus;  F, 
extensor  longus  digitorum ;  f , 
extensor  hallucis;  G,  gastroc- 
nemius;  S,  solcus. 


120  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

INSERTION. — The  inner  margin  of  the  inner  cuneiform  bone 
and  of  the  first  metatarsal. 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  arise  directly  from  the  tibia  to  be  in- 
serted in  a  penniform  manner  into  the  long  tendon  of  insertion, 
which  is  held  close  to  the  ankle  by  its  passing  under  a  ring  of 
ligament. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Strong  flexion  of  ankle  and  tarsal  joints, 
straightening  out  the  inner  side  of  the  main  arch  of  the  foot, 
adducting  the  sole. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  tibialis  anticus  is  in  constant  action  in 
such  exercises  as  walking,  running,  and  jumping,  to  lift  the  front 
of  the  foot  and  the  toes  and  so  prevent  their  dragging  on  the 
ground  as  the  foot  is  swung  forward.  The  action  being  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  foot,  flexion  will  be  accompanied  by  adduction 
unless  it  is  associated  with  another  muscle  to  prevent  it.  This 
office  is  performed  by  the  next  muscle. 

EXTENSOR    LONGUS    DIGITORUM. 

Latin  for  long  extensor  of  the  toes ;  it  lies  on  the  front  of  the 
leg  to  the  outer  side  of  the  preceding.  "  (Fig.  56.) 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  tuberosity  of  the  tibia  and  the  front  of 
the  fibula  and  of  the  interosseous  membrane. 

INSERTION. — The  upper  surfaces  of  the  bones  of  the  four 
outer  toes. 

STRUCTURE. — It  is  a  penniform  muscle  with  a  long  tendon  be- 
ginning at  the  middle  of  the  leg:  As  it  passes  under  the  ring  liga- 
ment at  the  ankle  it  divides  into  four  tendons  which  pass  to  the 
four  toes. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Extension  of  the  four  last  toes  and  then 
combined  flexion  and  abduction  of  the  foot. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — This  muscle  normally  acts  with  the  tibialis 
anticus  to  produce  normal  flexion  of  the  foot,  which  is  not  possible 
if  either  muscle  is  deficient. 


THE   LOWER   UMB  121 

EXTENSOR  PROPRIUS  HALLUCIS. 

Latin  for  "special  extensor  for  the  great  toe" ;  a  small  muscle 
also  found  on  the  front  of  the  leg.  (Fig.  56.) 

ORIGIN. — Front  of  the  fibula  and  of  the  interosseous  mem- 
brane at  the  middle  of  the  leg. 

INSERTION. — The  upper  surfaces  of  the  bones  of  the  great  toe. 

STRUCTURE. — Like  the  preceding. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Strong  extension  of  the  great  toe ;  feeble 
flexion  of  the  tarsal  joints ;  no  effect  on  the  ankle. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  extensor  proprius  hallucis  works  nor- 
mally along  with  the  tibialis  anticus  to  prevent  the  toe  from  taking 
the  position  of  extreme  flexion  that  would  otherwise  follow  from 
the  action  of  the  latter. 

GASTROCNEMIUS. 

A  large  muscle  that  gives  the  rounded  form  to  the  calf  of  the 
leg.  (Fig.  57.) 

ORIGIN. — By  two  heads  from  the  back  sides  of  the  condyles 
of  the  femur. 

INSERTION. — By  a  very  large  tendon  (tendon  of  achilles)  into 
the  back  side  of  the  calcaneum. 

STRUCTURE, — Short  tendons  above ;  the  lower  tendon  has  a 
cross  section  like  the  capital  T  with  the  longer  part  passing  up 
between  the  right  and  left  halves  of  the  muscle  and  the  cross  bar 
on  its  posterior  surface ;  the  fibers  from  the  two  heads  are  in- 
serted obliquely  into  the  sides  of  this  tendon. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — First,  complete  extension  of  the  ankle 
joint,  by  which  the  foot  is  depressed, — the  outer  margin  with 
great  force  and  the  inner  margin  with  very  little  force ;  then,  if  the 
contraction  goes  farther,  the  calcaneum  is  flexed  on  the  astragalus. 
The  joint  here  is  such  that  the  foot  is  not  flexed  directly,  as  in  the 
ankle  joint,  but  by  a  combination  of  flexion  and  adduction,  the 


122 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING 


external  border  of  the  foot  being  depressed  further  than  the  inner 
border,  turning  the  sole  in. 

No  considerable  action  on  the  knee  is  produced. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — This  is  the  most  important  muscle  for  lift- 
ing the  body  on  the  toes  in  walking,  running,  jumping,  etc.  Its 
special  connection  with  the  outside  of  the  foot  makes  it  necessary 
to  have  an  associate  to  correct  the  pull  to  one  side  and  thus  give 
direct  extension  of  the  foot. 


FIG.  57.    Gastocnemius,  soleus,  peroneus  longus. 
SOLEUS. 

This  associate  of  the  gastrocnemius  lies  directly  beneath  it 
on  the  back  of  the  leg  and  can  be  felt  bulging  out  on  both  sides 
during  vigorous  contraction.  (Fig.  57.) 

ORIGIN. — The  upper  part  of  the  posterior  surfaces  of  the 
tibia,  fibula,  and  interosseous  membrane. 

INSERTION. — Into  the  tendon  of  Achilles. 

STRUCTURE. — Complex  penniform,  similar  to  the  preceding. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Same  as  the  preceding,  but  with  less 
power. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  same  as  the  gastrocnemius. 


THE:  LOWER  iviMB  "•  123 

PERONEUS  LONGUS. 

This  muscle  is  remarkable  for  its  great  power  in  proportion 
to  its  size  and  for  the  long  and  tortuous  course  of  its  tendon  of 
insertion.  It  is  situated  along  the  outside  of  the  leg  along  the 
fibula.  (Fig.  57.) 

ORIGIN. — The  outer  tuberosity  of  the  tibia  and  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  fibula. 

INSERTION. — The  outer  margin  of  the  under  surface  of  the 
first  metatarsal  bone  and  the  first  cuneiform  bone  near  it,  under 
the  ball  of  the  great  toe. 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  are  short  and  arise  directly  from  the 
bone,  making  a  typical  example  of  the  simple  penniform  arrange- 
ment ;  the  tendon  passes  first  behind  the  outer  malleolus  as  a  pulley, 
turning  forward  at  an  angle  of  about  60  degrees,  and  then  through 
a  groove  in  the  cuboid  bone,  where  it  turns  across  the  sole  of  the 
foot  at  an  angle  of  100  degrees ;  passing  across  beneath  the  foot 
it.  reaches  its  insertion  at  the  inner  margin. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — First,  strong  depression  of  the  great  toe, 
increasing  the  curvature  of  the  main  arch  at  its  inner  margin,  the 
toe  moving  outward  as  well  as  downward ;  then  it  causes  abduc- 
tion, turning  the  sole  of  the  foot  outward,  the  movement  being 
mainly  between  the  calcaneum  and  the  astragalus;  finally  it  ex- 
tends the  ankle  joint,  but  only  to  a  small  extent  and  with  little 
force.  All  these  movements  are  made  with  very  little  force  unless 
the  gastrocnemius  and  soleus  act  at  the  same  time  to  extend  the 
ankle,  since  the  peroneus  longus  pulls  around  the  cuboid  bone, 
which  must  be  held  firmly  downward  to  enable  it  to  act. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  peroneus  longus  acts  in  association 
with  the  muscles  pulling  on  the  tendon  of  Achilles  to  produce 
direct  extension  of  the  foot,  which  is  not  secured  by  either  alone. 
If  the  gastrocnemius  is  weak,  too  much  weight  is  thrown  on  the 
heel,  with  resulting  deformity;  if  the  peroneus 'is  weak,  the  great 
toe  is  not  held  down,  the  inner  side  of  the  arch  straightens  out, 
and  flat  foot  results. 


124  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

TIBIALIS  POSTICUS. 

ORIGIN. — The  posterior  sides  of  the  tibia,  fibula,  and  interos- 
seous  membrane. 

INSERTION. — The  under  side  of  the  scaphoid  bone. 

STRUCTURE. — Strong  penniform  arrangement.  The  tendon 
of  insertion  passes  around  the  inner  malleolus,  turning  its  direc- 
tion a  little  more  than  90  degrees. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Adduction  of  the  foot  and  increased  cur- 
vature of  the  arch ;  it  affects  the  ankle  but  slightly  and  with  no 
force. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  tibialis  posticus  helps  to  support  the 
weight  on  the  foot  by  preventing  the  ankle  from  turning  inward, 
and  so  is  a  guard  against  certain  kinds  of  deformity.  It  is  the 
only  muscle  producing  a  simple  adduction  of  the  foot  without 
flexion  or  extension. 

PERONEUS  BREVIS. 

ORIGIN. — The  lower  two-thirds  of  the  outer  surface  of  the 
fibula. 

INSERTION. — The  outer  side  of  the  base  of  the  fifth  metarsal 
bone. 

STRUCTURE. — Arrangement  of  fibers  like  the  longus ;  similar 
turn  around  the  outer  malleolus ;  passes  directly  forward  to  in- 
sertion. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Abduction  of  the  foot  with  great  force. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  peroneus  brevis  acts  with  the  longus 
in  abducting  the  foot  and  in  preventing  adduction  when  the 
weight  is  on  it,  thus  helping  to  maintain  it  in  normal  position. 

FLAT  FOOT. 

Sometimes  the  arches  of  the  foot  fail  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  body  and  flatten  out,  giving  the  condition  known  as  flat  foot. 
(Fig.  58a.)  The  inner  end  of  the  transverse  arch  usually  gives 


THE 


125 


(a) 


(b) 

FIG.  58.     (a)  a  flat  foot,  (b)  a  normal  foot,  viewed  from  the 
inner  side. 

way  first,  allowing  the  ankle  to  bend  inward,  making  the  inner 
malleolus  prominent ;  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  abducted  and  the  inner 
margin  of  the  foot  becomes  convex,  when  it  should  be  straight ; 
pressure  is  brought  to  bear  on  nerves  and  blood  vessels  beneath 
the  foot,  causing  swelling  and  pain. 


126  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

The  main  predisposing  cause  of  flat  foot  is  muscular  weak- 
ness ;  inability  of  the  muscles  supporting  the  arches  of  the  foot  to 
sustain  the  weight  placed  upon  them  and  to  maintain  the  foot  in 
proper  position.  (Fig.  59a.)  Among  the  great  number  of  con- 
tributing factors  found  in  particular  cases  the  most  important  are 
improper  shoes,  general  weakness,  rapid  increase  in  weight,  vio- 
lent strain,  and  too  long  continued  standing  on  a  hard  floor. 

Tight  shoes,  and  those  with  high  heels  are  always  conducive 
to  the  deformity,  since  they  interfere  with  the  natural  action  of  the 
muscles ;  shoes  that  have  been  worn  until  they  turn  over  inward 
at  the  heel  are  especially  bad. 

The  general  weakness  that  always  follows  continued  illness 
unfits  one  to  stand  much  on  the  feet,  and  the  arches  are  apt  to 
give  way  if  too  much  standing  is  attempted  at  such  a  time;  weak- 
ness resulting  from  disuse  of  the  limb  made  necessary  by  injury  of 
any  kind  may  also  cause  the  difficulty. 

Persons  who  have  been  light  and  slender  for  many  years  fre- 
quently become  heavy  at  or  before  middle  age,  and  the  feet,  un- 
used to  supporting  the  added  weight,  fail  to  do  so  properly. 

Athletes  who  practice  jumping  to  excess  without  a  sufficiently 
long  preliminary  training  to  prepare  the  muscles  of  the  feet  for 
it,  often  have  flat  foot  as  a  result  of  the  strain  of  alighting ;  pro- 
fessional strong  men  and  others  doing  heavy  lifting  are  liable  to 
the  same  thing. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  cases  arise  among  those  whose 
occupation  requires  long  standing  on  the  feet,  with  little  or  no 
exercise  that  is  calculated  to  strengthen  the  supporting  muscles. 
Clerks,  nurses,  and  motor-men  are  especially  liable  to  flat  foot 
from  this  cause. 

The  muscles  directly  concerned  in  the  prevention  of  the  posi- 
tion of  flat  foot  are  the  peroneus  longus,  the  tibialis  posticus,  and 
the  muscles  acting  on  the  tendon  of  Achilles,  together  with  sev- 
eral smaller  muscles  of  the  sole  of  the.  foot  which  we  have  not 
studied.  The  one  most  often  at  fault  in  the  first  stages  of  flat 
foot  is  the  peroneus  longus,  which  has  for  its  duty  to  depress  the 
ball  of  the  great  toe  and  thus  to  support  one  end  of  each  arch 


THE   LOWER   UMB 


127 


(a) 


(b) 
FIG.  59.    Prints  of  feet  on  paper,    (a)  flat  foot,  (b)  normal  foot. 

at  the  same  time.  When  this  muscle,  from  strain  or  fatigue,  fails 
to  perform  its  part,  the  tibialis  posticus  and  the  ligaments  sustain- 
ing the  inner  edge  of  the  foot  are  not  able  to  support  the  weight 
and  the  arch  gives  way.  If  the  gastrocnemius  and  soleus  are 
strong  it  is  still  possible  to  avoid  permanent  harm  to  the  foot,  for 


12.8  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

the  subject  can  use  these  muscles  strongly,  walking  on  the  outer 
edge  of  the  foot  and  adducting  the  sole,  taking  all  strain  off  from 
the  inner  side  and  allowing  the  two  weakened  muscles  and  the 
ligaments  to  rest  and  recuperate.  When  left  to  himself,  however, 
one  is  not  apt  to  do  this ;  it  is  easier  to  relax  and  let  the  ankle  turn 
in,  which  is  the  usual  next  stage  of  the  deformity.  It  seems  like 
a  contradiction  to  say  that  weakness  of  the  peroneus  longus,  an 
abductor  of  the  foot,  will  lead  to  a  habitual  adbuction,  but  that  is 
the  case.  Stretching  of  the  two  strong  plantar  ligaments  by  jump- 
ing or  lifting  causes  still  greater  flatness. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE:  MECHANISM  OF  THE  TRUNK 

Movements  of  the  Spinal  Column. 

The  bony  axis  of  the  trunk  is  the  spinal  column,  which  con- 
sists of  33  vertebrae,  classified  as  follows:  7  cervical,  12  thoracic, 
5  lumbar,  5  sacral,  and  4  coccygeal.  The  vertebrae  increase  in  size 
from  above  downward  as  far  as  the  lumbar  region;  the  sacral 
vertebrae  are  fused  into  a  single  bone,  the  sacrum;  the  coccygeal 
vertebrae  are  not  fully  developed.  Each  vertebra  has  ten  parts 
that  should  be  observed:  I  body,  2  pedicles,  2  laminae,  i  spinous 
process,  2  transverse  processes,  and  2  articular  processes. 
(Fig.  61.) 

Articulating  with  the  spinal  column  are  12  ribs,  classified  into 
10  fixed  and  2  floating  ribs,  the  latter  not  being  attached  to  the 
cartilages  in  front.  In  front  of  the  chest  is  the  sternum,  consist- 
ing of  three  parts  and  attached  to  the  ribs  by  the  costal  cartilages. 

The  sacrum  is  firmly  bound  to  the  two  ilia  to  form  the  pelvis 
and  serves  as  a  base  on  which  the  spinal  column  rests.  The  verte- 
brae are  separated  by  discs  of  cartilage  which  are  firmly  attached 
to  each  vertebra,  forming  an  amphiarthrosis, — a  form  of  joint 
moving  only  by  virtue  of  the  elasticity  of  the  discs.  There  are 
arthrodial  joints  between  the  articular  processes. 

The  normal  spinal  column  is  straight  when  viewed  from  front 
or  rear,  excepting  a  slight  deviation  to  right  in  the  middle  thoracic 
region,  probably  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  aorta  against  the  left 
side  of  the  bodies  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  thoracic  vertebrae.  When 
viewed  from  the  side  four  normal  curves  are  seen:  cervical  and 
lumbar  curves  convex  toward  the  front  and  thoracic  and  sacral 
curves  convex  to  the  rear.  (Fig.  60.) 

The  thoracic  and  sacral  curves  exist  before  birth  and  are 
mainly  due  to  the  shape  of  the  vertebrae  themselves ;  the  cervical 
and  lumbar  curves  are  developed  during  childhood  and  are  mainly 


130 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


due  to  the  shape  of  the  intervertebral  discs.  When  the  child  begins 
to  creep  he  holds  his  head  up  so  as  to  look  ahead ;  this  gradually 
gives  rise  to  the  normal  cervical  curve.  The  lumber  curve  first 
makes  its  appearance  when  he  begins  to  stand  erect  on  his  feet. 


FIG.  61.  A  typical  vertebra.  B,  body;  P,  pedicle;  T,  trans 
verse  process ;  A,  articular  process ;  L,  lamina ;  S,  Spir 
ous  process. 


FIG.  60.  The  spinal  column,  viewed  from  the  side.  C, 
cervical  region ;  T,  thoracic ;  L,  lumbar ;  S,  sacrum ; 
Co,  coceyx.  The  anterior  side  is  at  the  right. 


THE;  TRUNK  131 

The  "inverted  Y"  ligaments  at  the  front  of  the  hip  joints  are  lax 
in  the  positions  of  sitting  and  creeping,  and  as  the  erect  position  is 
assumed  on  the  feet  for  the  first  time  the  pelvis  tips  back  on  the 
heads  of  the  femurs  until  these  ligaments  become  tense.  This 
prevents  the  pelvis  from  tipping  further,  and  the  trunk  is  raised 
to  the  erect  position  by  over  extending  the  spine  in  the  lumbar 
region,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  normal  lumbar  curve. 

Normal  posture  of  the  trunk  is  the  result  of  the  effort  of  the 
individual  to  balance  himself,  under  the  guidance  of  the  sense  of 
equilibrium  and  the  muscular  sense.  The  weight  of  head,  shoul- 
ders, arms,  and  chest  is  constantly  tending  to  bend  the  spinal  col- 
umn while  the  muscles,  under  the  guidance  of  the  senses  and  the 
central  nervous  system,  act  so  as  to  keep  the  weight  of  these  parts 
poised  as  perfectly  as  possible  above  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae. 

The  movements  of  the  spinal  column  are  as  follows : 

(1)  Bending  the  spine  forward  (flexion)  ; 

(2)  Backward  movement  from  a  position  of  flexion,  as  far 

as  the  normally  erect  position  (extension)  ; 

(3)  Backward    movement    beyond    the    extended   position 

(over-extension)  ; 

(4)  Bending  sidewise  (lateral  flexion)  ; 

(5)  Twisting  on  an  axis  (rotation). 

Flexion  may  take  place  through  the  whole  extent  of  the  spinal 
column,  and  is  most  free  in  the  lumbar  region ;  the  normal  lumbar 
curve  can  be  nearly  and  in  some  subjects  completely  obliterated 
by  voluntary  flexion. 

Over-extension  is  possible  to  but  a  slight  extent  in  the  upper 
parts  of  the  spine,  but  is  quite  free  in  the  lumbar  region ;  the  com- 
pletely over-extended  spine  is  shaped  much  like  a  hockey  stick, 
with  the  curve  below  and  the  straight  part  above. 

Lateral  flexion  occurs  through  the  whole  length  of  the  spine 
and  is  most  free  at  the  junction  of  the  thoracic  and  lumbar  regions. 

Rotation  is  most  free  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  spine  and 
diminishes  as  we  pass  downward ;  it  is  very  slight  or  lacking  in 
the  lumbar  region. 


132  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Lateral  flexion  and  rotation  never  occur  independently ;  each 
of  these  movements  of  the  trunk  always  involves  the  other.  This 
results  from  a  principle  of  mechanics  to  the  effect  that  when  a 
straight  flexible  rod  is  bent  in  one  plane  and  then  in  another  the 
combination  of  the  two  movements  necessarily  involves  a  twisting 
of  the  rod  on  its  axis,  the  convex  side  of  the  first  bend  turning 
toward  the  concave  side  of  the  second.  The  normal  spine  is  already 
bent  in  one  plane,  and  therefore  any  lateral  curve  will  involve  a 
rotation.  Fig.  72  shows  the  direction  and  char  acter  of  this  rota- 
tion. It  is  of  course  equally  true  that  any  twist  of  the  trunk  will 
necessarily  involve  a  lateral  flexion  of  the  spine ;  this  can  be  readily 
observed  in  any  subject  who  is  taking  the  Swedish  gymnastic  ex- 
ercise of  trunk  twisting. 

MUSCLES  ACTING  ON   THE  SPINAL   COLUMN. 

The  muscles  that  act  to  move  the  spinal  column  and  to  sup- 
port it  against  the  force  of  gravitation  are  classified  as  follows : 
Mainly  flexors :  rectus  abdominis,  external  oblique,  internal 

oblique,  psoas. 

Mainly  extensors :  splenius,  erector  spinse,  oblique  extensors. 
Mainly  lateral  flexor :  quadratus  lumborum. 

RECTUS  ABDOMINIS. 

A  rather  slender  muscle  extending  vertically  up  and  down  the 
front  of  the  abdominal  wall.  The  muscles  of  the  right  and  left 
sides  are  separated  by  a  tendinous  strip  about  an  inch  wide  called 
the  linea  alba.  (Fig.  62,  R.) 

ORIGIN. — The  crest  of  the  pubes. 

INSERTION. — The  cartilages  of  the  5th,  6th,  and  7th  ribs. 

STRUCTURE. — Parallel  fibers,  crossed  by  two  or  three  tend- 
inous bands.  The  inner  portion  attaches  to  the  5th  rib  and  the 
outer  parts  to  the  ribs  next  lower.  The  lower  six  inches  of  the 
muscle  lies  within  the  transversalis  muscle,  next  to  the  internal 
organs  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  passing  through  a  slit  in  the  latter 
muscle. 


Tut;  TRUNK 


133 


ISOLATED  ACTION. — Flattening  of  the  front  of  the  abdomen 
and  vigorous  flexion  of  the  spinal  column. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  rectus  abdominis  takes  part  in  all 
movements  in  which  the  spine  is  flexed  against  resistance ;  in  de- 
pression of  the  ribs ;  in  flattening  the  abdomen  on  the  front. 


FIG.  62.    Abdominal  muscles.    R,  rectus  ; 
E,  external  oblique;  I,  internal  oblique. 


EXTERNAL  OBLIQUE. 

This  muscle  covers  the  front  and  side  of  the  abdominal  wall 
from  the  rectus  to  the  latissimus  dorsi.  (Fig.  62,  E.) 

ORIGIN.— The  front  half  of  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  the  front 
of  the  fascia  of  the  thigh,  and  the  linea  alba. 

INSERTION. — By  tooth-like  attachments  to  the  lower  eight  ribs, 
in  alternation  with  the  similar  attachments  of  the  serratus  magnus 
and  the  latissimus  dorsi. 


134  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

STRUCTURE:. — A  sheet  of  parallel  fibers  extending  upward  and 
sideward  from  the  origin  below,  the  fibers  of  the  two  muscles  of 
the  opposite  sides  forming  a  letter  V  on  the  front  of  the  abdomen. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Flexion  of  the  spinal  column  direct  and 
flattening  of  the  abdomen  when  both  muscles  act  at  the  same  time; 
when  one  acts  alone,  lateral  flexion  to  same  side,  rotation  to  oppo- 
site side. 

INTERNAL   OBLIQUE. 

Situated  just  beneath  the  externus,  with  fibers  running  at 
right  angles  to  those  of  the  latter.  (Fig.  62,  I.) 

ORIGIN. — The  fascia  of  the  lumbar  region,  anterior  two-thirds 
of  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  and  the  front  of  the  fascia  of  the  thigh. 

INSERTION. — The  linea  alba  and  the  cartilages  of  the  8th,  Qth, 
and  loth  ribs. 

STRUCTURE. — A  sheet  of  nearly  parallel  fibers,  the  muscles  of 
opposite  sides  forming  a  letter  A  on  the  front  of  the  abdomen. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Flexion  of  the  spine  and  compression  of 
the  abdominal  wall  when  both  muscles  work ;  lateral  flexion  to 
same  side  and  rotation  to  same  side  when  one  works  alone. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — When  direct  flexion  of  the  trunk  is  in- 
volved, both  internal  obliques  work  with  both  external  obliques 
and  the  rectus ;  when  lateral  flexion  is  desired,  the  internal  of  that 
side  works  with  the  external  and  if  the  movement  is  vigorous, 
with  the  rectus  of  the  same  side ;  in  rotation  the  internal  of  one 
side  works  with  the  external  of  the  other  side,  turning  the  face 
toward  the  side  of  the  internal  oblique. 

THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  BACK. 

The  muscles  of  the  back  can  be  best  remembered  as  so  many 
distinct  layers,  as  follows : 

First  layer,  the  trapezius. 

Second  layer,  levator,  rhomboid,  latissimus  dorsi. 


THE  TRUNK 


135 


Third  layer,  serratus  posticus  superior  and  inferior,  two  mus- 
cles of  respiration,  to  be  studied  later.     (Fig.  63.) 
Fourth  layer,  the  splenius. 
Fifth  layer,  the  erector  spinae  and  its  branches. 
.  Sixth  layer,  the  oblique  extensors. 


FIG.  63.  Third  and  fourth  layers  of 
back.  S,  splenius  of  the  head;  S, 
splenius  of  the  neck;  S.p.s,  serratus 
posticus  superior;  S.p.i,  serratus  pos- 
ticus inferior. 

SPLENIUS. 

The  splenius  is  situated  on  the  upper  part  of  the  back  with 
fibers  extending  diagonally  sideward  and  upward.  (Fig.  63.) 

ORIGIN. — The  spinous  processes  of  the  upper  six  thoracic 
vertebrae,  the  seventh  cervical,  and  the  lower  two-thirds  of  the 
ligament  of  the  neck. 


136  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

INSERTION. — The  transverse  processes  of  the  upper  four  cer- 
vical vertebrae  and  the  base  of  the  skull,  well  around  at  the  sides. 

STRUCTURE. — Like  all  the  extensors  of  the  spinal  column,  the 
splenius  has  a  continuous  series  of  origins  below  and  insertions 
above. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Extension,  lateral  flexion  and  rotation  to 
same  side.. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  splenius  is  especially  important  in 
holding  the  head  and  neck  firmly  erect,  as  in  the  fundamental 
standing  position  and  in  exercises  for  correction  of  round  shoul- 
ders ;  it  also  acts  in  twisting  the  head  and  bending  it  laterally. 

ERECTOR  SPIN^. 

This  is  a  very  large  mass  of  vertically  directed  parallel  fibers 
lying  in  and  filling  up  the  hollow  along  each  side  of  the  spinal 
column.  (Fig.  64.) 

ORIGIN. — The  back  of  the  sacrum,  the  posterior  one-fifth  of 
the  crest  of  the  ilium,  the  spinous  and  transverse  processes  of  all 
the  vertebrae,  and  the  angles  of  the  ribs. 

INSERTION. — The  processes  of  the  vertebrae,  the  angles  of  the 
ribs,  and  the  base  of  the  skull. 

STRUCTURE. — Beginning  as  a  thick  fleshy  mass  in  the  lower 
lumbar  region  the  erector  spinse  divides  into  three  parts  at  the 
level  of  the  lowest  rib.  One  of  these  divisions  passes  up  along 
the  line  of  spinous  processes ;  the  next  follows  the  line  of  the 
transverse  processes ;  the  third  follows  the  line  of  the  angles  of 
the  ribs ;  all  continue  up  to  the  base  of  the  skull. 

Lumbar  region  Thoracic  region  Cervical  region 

illio-costalis  Accessories  Cervicalis  ascendene 

Longissimus  dorsi     Transversalis  colli     Trachelo  mastoid 
Spinalis  dorsi  Spinalis  colli 

For  surgical  purposes  these  are  separate  muscles,  but  for  our 
purposes  they  may  be  considered  as  one  muscle  with  three 
branches  above.  Each  of  the  separate  divisions  has  its  series  of 
origins  and  insertions,  the  fibers  from  each  origin  passing  up  to 


THE  TRUNK 


137 


FIG.  64.  Erector  spin.T,  fifth  layer  on 
the  left,  and  the  oblique  extensors, 
sixth  layer,  on  the  right. 

be  inserted  four  or  five  vertebrae  above.  Each  group  of  fibers  acts 
on  the  joints  lying  between  its  origin  and  insertion ;  only  by  co- 
ordination of  all  the  parts  at  once  do  we  secure  extension  of  the 
whole  spine.  It  is  because  of  this  structure  that  one  can  learn  to 
extend  one  part  of  the  spine  and  at  the  same  time  flex  other  parts. 
ISOLATED  ACTION. — Extension  and  lateral  flexion  of  the  spinal 
column. 


138  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

NORMAL  ACTION. — All  the  parts  of  the  erector  spinae  act  at 
once  in  vigorous  and  direct  extension  of  the  spine,  as  in  lifting. 
(Fig.  65.)  It  is  constantly  used  in  maintaining  erect  standing  or 
sitting  position,  if  the  trunk  is  inclined  slightly  forward  and  if 
the  pelvis  is  level ;  tripping  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  backward 
throws  the  weight  behind  the  vertebrae  and  the  erector  spinse  in- 
stantly relax,  the  abdominal  muscles  contracting  in  their  stead. 
By  poising  the  trunk  exactly  very  little  action  is  required  of  either 
back  or  abdominal  muscles ;  lifting  arms  forward  in  such  exact 
poise  makes  the  back  muscles  work  again  ;  pushing  with  the  raised 
arms  against  an  object  in  front  instantly  changes  the  action  to  the 
abdominal  muscles.  If  the  pelvis  is  not  level  the  erector  of  only 
one  side  contracts  in  standing  erect,  but  both  may  act  if  the  spine 
is  curved.  In  walking  the  right  and  left  erector  spinae  act  alter- 
nately. 

Persons  in  whom  the  erector  spinae  are  paralyzed  or  feeble 
cannot  lift  the  weight  of  the  trunk  in  direct  extension  and  habitu- 
ally stand  with  the  trunk  over-extended,  so  that  the  center  of 
gravity  falls  back  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  and  the  abdominal  mus- 
cles support  it. 

THE  OBLIQUE  EXTENSORS. 

This  is  a  mass  of  oblique  fibers  lying  beneath  the  erector 
spinae  and  filling  the  bottom  of  the  deep  hollow  on  each  side  of 
the  center  of  the  back.  Its  upper  part  is  called  the  complexus. 
(Fig.  64.) 

ORIGIN. — The  transverse  processes  of  all  the  vertebrae. 

INSERTION. — The  spinous  processes  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  ver- 
tebra above  the  one  serving  as  origin. 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  pass  diagonally  upward  and  inward 
from  the  transverse  process  below  to  the  spinous  process  above. 
It  forms  a  single  muscular  mass,  but  its  action  is  that  of  a  series 
of  fibers,  each  small  group  acting  on  a  few  vertebral  joints  and  all 
together  moving  the  spinal  column. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Extension,  lateral  flexion  to  same  side, 
rotation  to  opposite  side. 


THE  TRUNK 


139 


FIG.  65.    Trunk  bending  forward.    B,  biceps;  G.M,  gluteus 
maximus;  E.S,  erector  spinae. 


140  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  normal  action  of  the  oblique  exten- 
sors cannot  be  observed  in  normal  cases,  but  we  can  judge  of  their 
action  by  the  mechanical  conditions  under  which  they  work. 

THE;  MOVEMENTS  OF  BREATHING. 

The  ribs  are  joined  to  the  spinal  column  by  arthrodial  joints 
that  permit  a  slight  movement  upward  and  downward.  The  ten 
upper  ribs  are  attached  to  the  sternum  by  cartilages  that  permit  a 
slight  movement,  and  there  is  also  a  slight  movement  possible  in 
the  joints  between  the  ribs  and  their  cartilages.  Two  forms  of 
movement  of  the  ribs  are  distinguished,  as  follows : 

(a)  Elevation  and  depression  of  the  whole  rib  on  its  articu- 

lation with  the  spinal  column  as  a  center. 

(b)  Elevation  and  depression  of  the  middle  of  the  rib  on  its 

two  extremities  as  centers. 

The  chest  gradually  becomes  wider  and  relatively  less  deep 
with  age  and  growth.  • 

To  understand  the  act  of  breathing  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  lungs,  lying  within  the  chest,  are  connected  with  the  out- 
side air  by  the  open  bronchial  tubes  and  the  passages  of  the  throat 
and  nostrils,  and  that  in  consequence  an  enlargement  of  the  chest 
permits  the  outside  air,  always  under  pressure,  to  flow  into  the 
lungs ;  depression  of  the  ribs  and  the  resulting  decrease  in  the 
size  of  the  chest  forces  the  air  out  of  the  lungs.  (Fig.  66.) 

THE   MUSCLES    OF    RESPIRATION. 

Muscles  used  in  quiet  inspiration :  external  intercostals,  in- 
ternal intercO'Stals,  diaphragm. 

No  muscles  are  used  in  quiet  expiration,  the  air  'being  ex- 
pelled from  the  lungs  by  the  weight  of  the  chest,  the  elasticity  of 
the  tissues  that  have  been  stretched  in  inspiration,  and  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  lungs  themselves.  The  elasticity  of  the  lungs  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  rapid  expulsion  of  the  air  in  breathing,  use 
of  the  voice,  coughing,  etc. 

Muscles  used  in  deeper  inspiration :  sterno-mastoid,  the  three 
scaleni,  the  serratus  posticus  superior,  and  the  pectoralis  minor. 


THE  TRUNK 


141 


Muscles  used  in  forced  expiration,  as  in  speaking,  singing,  or 
in  deeper  breathing:  rectus  abdominis,  external  oblique,  internal 
oblique,  transversalis,  serratus  posticus  inferior,  quadratus 
lumborum,  latissimus  dorsi. 


St 


Movements    of    the    chest    in  breathing. 


EXTERNAL,   INTERCOSTALS. 

Muscular  fibers  located  in  the  spaces  between  the  ribs. 
(Fig.  67,  E.) 

ORIGIN. — The  lower  borders  of  all  the  ribs  except  the  twelfth. 

INSERTION. — The  upper  borders  of  all  ribs  except  the  first. 

STRUCTURE.— Parallel  fibers  extending  from  each  rib  to  the 
rib  below,  extending  diagonally  downward  and  forward  in  the 
direction  of  the  external  oblique  of  the  abdominal  wall;  like  the 
latter  muscle  it  is  the  outer  of  the  layers.  The  external  inter- 
costals  occupy  all  the  space  between  the  ribs  from  the  spinal 
column  forward  to  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs,  where  they  come 
to  an  end. 


142  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — To  raise  the  ribs. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — No  muscles  in  the  body  have  been  in  so 
much  dispute  among  anatomists  and  physiologists  as  the  inter- 
costals.  Duchenne,  who  has  done  more  than  any  other  one  man 
to  discover  the  isolated  action  of  the  muscles,  gives  a  list  of  seven 
different  opinions  that  have  been  held  by  various  eminent  anat- 
omists as  to  the  action  of  the  intercostals  but  his  own  studies  make 
it  about  certain  that  both  the  external  and  the  internal  intercosals 
aid  in  raising  the  ribs  in  normal  breathing. 

INTERNAL   INTERCOSTALS. 

ORIGIN. — The  same  as  the  preceding.    (Fig.  67,  I.) 
INSERTION. — The  same  as  the  preceding. 

STRUCTURE. — The  same  as  the  preceding,  except  that  the 
fibers  extend  downward  and  sideward,  like  those  of  the  internal 
oblique  of  the  abdominal  wall,  and  that  in  each  intercostal  space 
the  muscle  extends  from  the  sternum  as  far  as  the  angle  of  the 
ribs,  where  they  come  to  an  end. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — To  raise  the  ribs. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — In  cases  of  loss  of  the  pectoralis  major, 
the  external  intercostals  can  be  felt  to  contract  during  inspiration, 
and  also  the  internal  intercostals  in  the  space  from  the  end  of  the 
rib  to  the  sternum.  Duchenne  states  that  he  did  this  in  many 
cases  and  found  that  the  two  sets  of  intercostals  work  together  in 
the  normal  act  of  breathing.  He  also  stimulated  both  sets  of 
muscles  by  electric  current  and  secured  a  lift  of  the  ribs  in  each 
instance.  The  absence  of  those  fibers  of  each  muscle  that  would 
produce  depression  of  the  ribs  if  present  is  also  a  strong  argument 
for  this  view,  and  Morris'  argument  as  to  the  advantages  of  two 
sets  of  oblique  fibers  is  also  good.  In  spite  of  much  opinion  to  the 
contrary  and  to  the  impossibility  of  our  studying  the  question  in 
normal  cases,  it  seems  conclusive  that  the  actions  of  the  intercostal 
muscles  is  as  stated. 


THE;  TRUNK 


143 


DIAPHRAGM. 


A  dome  shaped  sheet  forming  a  partition  between  the  chest 
and  the  abdomen.  (Fig.  67,  D.) 

ORIGIN. — An  approximately  circular  one,  passing  entirely 
around  the  inner  surface  of  the  body  wall,  attachment  being  to  the 


FIG.  67.  The  muscles  of  respiration  E, 
external  intercostals ;  I,  internal  inter- 
costals ;  D,  diaphragm ;  c.t,  central 
tendon  of  diaphragm;  St,  sternum, 
cut  away  to  show  diaphragm;  Si,  82, 
83,  the  three  scaleni;  C,  clavicle,  cut 
away  to  show  the  scaleni ;  T,  trans- 
varsalis;  E,  ensiform  cartilage. 

fascia  of  the  lumbar  region,  the  cartilages  of  the  six  lower  ribs, 
the  ensiform  cartilage,  the  ribs  near  the  cartilages,  and  to  the 
bodies  of  two  or  three  vertebrae. 

INSERTION. — Its  own  central  tendon,  which  is  an  oblong  sheet 
of  connective  tissue  forming  the  summit  of  the  dome. 


144  PHYSICAL,    TRAINING 

STRUCTURE. — The  fibers  pass  vertically  upward  from  their 
origin  and  then  curve  inward  to  their  insertion.  The  sternal  por- 
tion is  shortest;  the  lateral  part  has  toothed  attachments  to  the 
ribs  in  alternation  with  those  of  the  transversalis. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — To  depress  the  central  tendon  and  to  raise 
the  ribs  to  which  it  attaches,  resulting  in  deepening  of  the  chest 
and  inhalation  of  air  through  the  bronchi  into  the  lungs.  The 
contraction  of  the  diaphragm  does  not  raise  the  lower  ribs  unless 
the  abdominal  walls  are  strong  enough  to  offer  a  normal  amount 
of  resistance  to  the  descent  of  the  central  tendon. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  diaphragm  acts  in. unison  with  the 
intercostal  muscles  in  taking  in  the  breath.  The  extent  of  move- 
ment here  depends  on  the  clothing  and  the  muscular  habits  of  the 
individual. 

In  quiet  breathing  the  intercostals  and  the  diaphragm  are 
sufficient  to  enlarge  the  chest  cavity,  and  the  pressure  of.the  atmos- 
phere drives  air  into  the  lungs  until  they  are  inflated  to  fill  the 
space  thus  made.  When  these  muscles  relax,  the  weight  of  the 
chest  and  the  elasticity  of  its  walls  are  sufficient  to  bring  it  back 
to  normal  position-,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  abdominal  walls  is 
sufficient  to  bring  the  diaphragm  up  to  the  starting  point ;  the 
elasticity  of  the  lungs  also  aids  in  expelling  the  air. 

In  deeper  inspiration  the  pectoralis  minor  and  the  following 
muscles  take  .part ;  when  the  intercostals  or  the  diaphragm  are 
paralyzed  all  these  muscles  have  to  work  hard  to  supply  enough 
air  for  quiet  breathing. 

STERNO-MASTOID. 

Seen  prominently  at  front  and  side  of  neck  on  twisting  the 
head ;  named  from  the  two  bony  points  to  which  it  is  attached. 

ORIGIN. — The  mastoid  process  of  the  skull. 

INSERTION. — The  upper  end  of  the  sternum  and  the  inner  one- 
fourth  of  the  clavicle. 

STRUCTURE. — Parallel  fibers,  separating  into  two  parts  below. 


THE  TRUNK  145 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — When  the  head  is  held  rigidly  erect  the 
contraction  of  the  sterno-mastoid  lifts  the  chest ;  when  the  head 
is  free  to  move,  it  is  bent  forward;  if  one  muscle  is  stimulated 
alone,  the  head  is  turned  to  the  opposite  side. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  sterno-mastoid  may  be  seen  to  con- 
tract in  great  efforts  to  get  a  deep  breath ;  in  persons  suffering 
from  asthma  or  paralysis  of  one  of  the  regular  muscles  of  quiet 
inspiration  this  is  noticeable  all  the  time.  Its  action  to  turn  the 
head  and  to  bend  it  forward  against  resistance  is  also  easily  shown. 

(Fig.  390 

THE:  SCALENI. 

Three  closely  related  muscles  located  on  the  side  of  the  neck. 

ORIGIN. — The  cervical  vertebrae. 

INSERTION. — The  two  anterior  scaleni,  on  the  first  rib;  the 
posterior,  on  the  second  rib,  Fig.  65. 

STRUCTURE. — Fibers  converging  as  they  pass  downward.   • 

MECHANICAL  CONDITIONS. — Study  the  pull  of  these  muscles 
on  the  ribs  so  as  to  be  ready  to  demonstrate  what  they  can  do. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — To  raise  the  first  two  ribs  and  the 
sternum. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  scalene  muscles  take  part  in  all  efforts 
to  take  a  deep  breath,  holding  the  upper  rib  up  so  that  the  pull  of 
the  intercostals  can  raise  the  others.  In  some  persons  these  mus- 
cles act  in  quiet  breathing,  as  shown  by  the  breathing  curve  re- 
corded when  we  try  to  take  a  pulse  record  from  the  carotid  artery. 

SERRATUS  POSTICUS  SUPERIOR. 

Located  on  the  back  beneath  the  scapulas,  Fig.  63. 

ORIGIN. — The  spinous  processes  of  the  seventh  cervical  and 
the  first  two  thoracic  vertebrae. 

INSERTION. — The  second  to  the  fifth  ribs  inclusive,  just  ex- 
terior to  their  angles. 

STRUCTURE. — Tendinous  sheet  near  the  spinal  column ;  fibers 
inserted  directly  into  the  ribs. 

ACTION. — To  raise  the  upper  ribs. 


146  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

TRANSVERSALIS. 

The  deepest  and  strongest  layer  of  the  abdominal  wall,  named 
from  the  direction  of  its  fibers,  Fig.  67,  T. 

ORIGIN. — The  anterior  two-thirds  of  the  crest  of  the  ilium, 
the  fascia  of  the  lumbar  region,  and  the  lower  six  ribs. 

INSERTION. — The  linea  alba. 

STRUCTURE. — Horizontally  placed  fibers,  forming  a  thick 
sheet. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — To  compress  the  abdomen. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — The  transversalis  takes  part  in  forced  ex- 
pulsion of  the  breath,  ,  working  in  unison  with  the  three  less 
powerful  muscles  of  the  abdominal  wall. 

SERRATUS  POSTICUS  INFERIOR. 

Named  from    its    position    and    its    saw-toothed    insertion. 

(Pig-  63.) 

ORIGIN. — Spinous  processes  of  the  two  lower  thoracic  and 
the  two  upper  lumbar  vertebrae. 

INSERTION. — The  last  four  or  five  ribs,  just  external  to  their 
angles. 

STRUCTURE. — Inner  half  is  a  thin  tendinous  sheet,  blended 
with  origins  of  latissimus  dorsi  and  erector  spinae ;  muscular  fibers 
attached  directly  to  the  ribs. 

ISOLATED  ACTION. — Never  observed. 

NORMAL  ACTION. — Without  doubt  an  aid  in  forced  expira- 
tion and  probably  in  lateral  flexion  of  the  trunk. 

In  forced  expulsion  of  the  breath,  such  as  takes  place  in  all 
uses  of  the  voice :  whistling,  coughing,  and  blowing  wind  instru- 
ments, glass  blowing,  etc.,  the  ribs  are  lowered  by  the  contraction 
of  the  rectus,  the  external  and  internal  oblique,  the  quadratus 
lumborum,  the  serratus  posticus  inferior,  and  the  ilio-costalis.  In 
the  same  movement  the  abdominal  cavity  and  the  organs  within 
it  are  compressed  by  the  contraction  of  the  three  abdominal  mus- 
cles just  mentioned  and  the  transversalis.  When  the  abdominal 
muscles  are  paralyzed  the  voice  is  very  weak  and  the  ability  to 
clear  the  bronchial  tubes  of  mucous  by  coughing  is  lost. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


POSTURE. 

'I  o  appreciate  the  full  significance  of  posture  one  must  bear 
in  mind  that  the  framework  of  the  body  consists  of  many  separate 
bones  so  joined  as  to  admit  of  free  movement  and  poised  upon  a 
small  base  below.  In  the  trunk  we  have  an  exceedingly  flexible 
column  of  twenty-four  vertebrae  separated  by  elastic  discs  and 
resting  upon  the  pelvis;  this  in  turn  is  poised  upon  the  bones  of 
the  lower  limbs.  The  base  is  so  small  that  any  deviation  from  the 
vertical  at  any  level  necessitates  a  deviation  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion at  another  level. 

The  weight  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  is  constantly  tend- 
ing to  deepen  the  normal  curves  of  the  spinal  column  and  any 
others  that  may  be  present  temporarily,  so  that  normal  posture 
must  be  maintained  in  constant  opposition  to  the  force  of  gravita- 
tion and  at  the  expense  of  a  considerable  amount  of  muscular 
force.  A  defect  anywhere  in  bones,  ligaments  or  muscles  evi- 
dently puts  the  whole  out  of  balance  and  results  in  abnormal 
posture. 

A  definition  of  normal  posture  involves  two  views  of  the 
body, — one  from  the  front  or  back  and  one  from  the  side.  Viewed 
from  front  or  back,  there  is  bilateral  symmetry.  This  means  that 
a  vertical  plane  passing  in  an  antero-posterior  direction  through  a 
point  midway  between  the  feet  will  divide  the  body  into  two 
equal  parts.  The  weight  is  divided  equally  between  the  feet,  the 
spinal  column  is  straight  and  vertical,  while  the  hips,  waist,  chest 
and  shoulders  are  of  the  same  height  on  each  side  and  equally 
distant  from  the  spine.  (Fig.  68.)  When  a  view  from  the  side 
is  taken,  we  see  that  the  weight  is  poised  well  forward  over  the 
balls  of  the  feet,  knees  and  hips  straight  (not  overextended)  ;  and 
the  trunk  exhibiting  the  three  norma  1  curves  in  the  lumbar, 
thoracic  and  cervical  regions. 


148 


PHYSICAL,    TRAINING 


Every  young  child  learns  how  to  stand  and  sit  as  voluntary 
movements,  but  in  the  usual  way  they  gradually  become  reflex, 
and  pass  under  control  of  the  lower  nerve  centers.  Until  he 
learns  to  stand  erect  the  thighs  are  flexed  upon  the  pelvis,  and  the 
plane  of  the  latter  is  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  trunk. 
The  spine  presents  one  continuous  curve,  convex  backward,  from 


FIG.  68.    Outline  tracing  of  normal  female  figure. 


the  head  to  the  pelvis.  When  he  straightens  up,  the  muscles  and 
ligaments  in  front  of  the  hip  joint  prevent  the  pelvis  from  taking 
the  horizontal  position,  and  keep  it  tilted  forward  at  a  consider- 
able angle.  The  upper  surface  of  the  sacrum,  upon  which  the 
spinal  column  rests,  tilts  forward  at  about  the  same  angle.  This 
necessitates  a  backward  bending  of  the  trunk,  giving  rise  to  the 
lower  or  lumbar  curve  of  the  spine,  with  the  convexity  forward. 
The  original  curve  remains  in  the  middle  or  thoracic  region, 


POSTURE  149 

while  the  raising  of  the  face  to  look  forward  produces  the  curve 
in  the  cervical  region. 

While  deviation  of  any  part  of  the  body  from  its  normal 
position  is  more  or  less  inconvenient  and  unsightly,  the  main- 
tenance of  normal  posture  is.  most  essential  in  case  of  the  trunk, 
because  it  contains  the  vital  organs  and  the  spinal  cord  and  spinal 


FIG.  69.    Effect  of  posture  of  the  spine  on  depth  of  chest 

nerves,  any  of  which  may  be  crowded  or  displaced.  The  position 
of  the  lower  limbs  is  incidentally  important,  because  they  support 
the  trunk  and  its  posture  depends  largely  upon  theirs.  In  a 
similar,  though  less  important  way,  the  position  of  the  arms  and 
shoulders  influence  the  posture  of  the  trunk. 

ROUND  SHOULDERS. — This  is  the  most  common  defect  of  pos- 
ture caused  by  school  life.     (Fig.  69,  right.)     It  consists  in  part 


150  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

in  a  drooping  forward  of  the  head,  increasing  the  curvature  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  chest.  The  shoulders  are  often  drawn  forward 
too,  contracting  the  chest  and  rounding  the  back.  The  first  part 
of  the  defect, — the  drooping  of  the  head, — is  due  to  the  weight 
of  the  head  not  being  supported  by  the  weak  muscles,  and  to  the 
habit  of  bending  over  a  book  or  other  work ;  the  position  of  the 
shoulders  is  caused  by  the  habit  of  holding  the  arms  forward  and 
using  them  much  in  this  position.  This  shortens  the  muscles  on 
the  front  of  the  chest  and  stretches  those  on  the  back,  pulling  the 
shoulder  blades  forward. 

The  chief  objection  to  round  shoulders  is  its  effect  on  the 
chest.  (Fig.  69.)  Two  groups  of  muscles,  the  scaleni  and  the 
sterno-mastoid,  pass  from  the  head  and  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck 
to  the  two  upper  ribs  and  the  sternum,  and  normally  act  as  sup- 
ports for  the  chest,  holding  it  up  and  thus  giving  it  a  large  ca- 
pacity. When  the  head  droops  forward  these  supports  are  without 
their  upper  point  of  vantage  and  allow  the  ribs  to  sink.  The 
abnormal  deepening  of  the  curve  of  the  spine  in  the  chest  region 
also  acts  to  depress  the  ribs.  All  this  flattens  the  chest  in  front, 
lessening  the  range  of  the  breathing  movements  and  leaving  some 
of  the  upper  parts  of-  the  lungs  unused.  The  other  organs  are 
crowded  and  their  action  hindered.  General  vitality  is  lessened 
and  tendency  to  lung  diseases  is  especially  increased. 

HOLLOW  BACK. — This  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  lumbar  curve 
of  the  spine.  It  is  sometimes  due  to  the  pelvis  tipping  forward  too 
far,  probably  the  result  of  learning  to  stand  too  late,  after  the 
tissues  at  the  front  of  the  hip  are  too  strong  to  admit  of  extending 
these  joints.  Sometimes  the  fault  is  due  to  weakness  of  the 
abdominal  muscles ;  more  often  to  the  habits  of  allowing  the  hips 
to  sway  too  far  forward  and  the  shoulders  too  far  backward. 

Hollow  back  causes  the  spinal  column  to  have  less  supporting 
power  than  it  should  have,  and  often  occasions  pain  in  the  small 
of  the  back.  The  pain  is  usually  believed  by  the  subject  to  be  due 
to  weak  back  muscles,  but  this  is  not  the  case ;  the  weight  of  parts 
above  is  transmitted,  not  through  the  whole  extent  of  each  verte- 
bra, but  by  small  margin  at  its  posterior  edge,  causing  excessive 


POSTURE  151 

pressure  and  often  pain.  Hollow  back  also  tends  to  cause  round 
shoulders,  because  it  puts  the  shoulders  so  far  back  that  the  head 
must  be  drooped  forward  to  keep  the  balance. 

LATERAL  CURVATURE. — Lateral  deviation  of  the  spine  also 
weakens  it,  and  if  the  amount  of  curvature  is  great,  it  is  apt  to 
cause  compression  of  the  spinal  nerves  where  they  pass  out  at  the 
sides  of  the  vertebrae,  causing  pain,  cramp,  or  paralysis  of  the 
parts  to  which  the  nerve  goes. 

Lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  is  often  caused  by  the  pelvis 
not  being  held  at  the  same  height  on  the  two  sides.  The  spine 
starts  upward  at  right  angles  to  the  line  joining  the  hip  joints,  and 
if  these  two  joints  are  not  at  equal  height  there  must  be  a  curve 
convex  toward  the  side  of  the  lower  hip.  This  may  arise  from 
inequality  in  the  length  of  the  lower  limbs,  or  from  the  habit  of 
standing  on  one  foot  with  the  opposite  hip  held  up  or  dropped 
down  or  sitting  on  one  foot.  A  lateral  curvature  may  also  result 
from  habits  of  position  due  to  occupation,  as  when  the  head  is 
held  to  one  side  in  writing  the  slanting  style  of  penmanship,  or 
when  a  weight  is  habitually  carried  in  one  hand  or  under  one 
arm.  Waiters  in  restaurants  and  women  who  carry  babies  often 
acquire  lateral  curvature  from  always  carrying  the  weight  on  the 
same  side.  The  same  is  true  of  newsboys. 

The  form  of  a  lateral  curve  usually  changes  and  becomes 
more  complex  in  later  stages.  Consider  as  an  illustration  the 
case  of  one  who  stands  habitually  on  the  left  foot.  The  unsup- 
ported side  of  the  pelvis  sinks,  partly  from  the  weight  resting 
on  it  normally  and  partly  from  the  weight  of  the  relaxed  limb, 
which  now  drags  down  upon  it  from  below.  The  spine,  as  it 
leaves  the  pelvis,  inclines  to  the  right,  and  then  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  balance,  sweeps  gradually  over  to  the  left.  The  shoul- 
ders tip  in  an  opposite  direction  from  the  pelvis,  and  the  head 
is  held  to  the  left.  The  spine  thus  takes  the  form  approaching 
the  letter  C,  and  the  curve  is  called  a  "C  curve."  (Fig.  70.)  The 
deviation  from  the  perpendicular  is  considerable,  causing  a  con- 
siderable strain  upon  the  side  muscles  of  the  convex  side.  As  a 
result  of  the  fatigue  and  discomfort  thus  occasioned  there  is  a 


152 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


tendency  to  bend  more .  sharply  to  the  left  in  the  lumbar  region, 
and  then  to  preserve  the  balance  by  bending  sharply  to  the  right 
in  the  thoracic  region,  tipping  the  shoulders  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  pelvis  and  holding  the  head  to  the  right.  This  gives  what 
is  called  an  "S  curve,"  the  lower  curve  being  known  as  the  pri- 


FiG.   70.     Lateral    curve    of 
the  spine,  the  "C"  type. 


FIG.  71.  Scoliosis.  Tracing 
of  a  girl  who  has  a  curve 
of  the  "S"  type. 


mary  curve  and  the  other  as  the  compensating  or  secondary  curve. 
(Fig.  71.)  In  the  S  curve  the  amount  of  deviation  from  the 
vertical  is  less  than  in  any  one  place  than  in  the  C  curve  from 
which  it  develops,  but  the  curves  are  sharper,  with  increased 
deformity  of  the  vertebrae  and  increased  chance  of  compressing 
the  spinal  nerves  as  they  pass  out  of  the  spinal  canal.  The  weight 
constantly  tends  to  deepen  all  the  curves,  especially  if  the  muscles 


POSTURE;  153 

are  weak  or  fixed  positions  required.  It  should  also  be  said  that 
upper  curve  may  be  the  primary  curve  and  the  lower  one  com- 
pensatory, as  in  a  case  produced  by  the  habit  of  carrying  the 
head  on  one  side. 

Besides  the  decrease  of  supporting  power  and  displacement 
of  the  vital  organs  that  always  accompany  scoliosis  there  is  another 
inseparable  condition  fully  as  serious  in  its  consequences.  The 
anterior  portion  of  the  spinal  column  consists  of  the  bodies  of 
the  vertebrae  and  the  intervertebral  discs.  They  are  intended 
to  support  the  weight,  and  consequently  resist  compression.  The 
greater  the  deviation  from  the  vertical,  the  greater  is  the  tendency 
for  the  weight  above  to  push  this  part  of  the  spine  still  farther. 
The  posterior  portion  of  the  column  consists  of  neural  arches  and 
spinous  processes.  They  do  not  rest  upon  one  another,  but  are 
connected  by  strong  ligaments  and  muscles  which  resist  any  sep- 
aration of  the  processes  and  tend  to  draw  them  closer  together. 
The  greater  the  deviation  from  a  straight  line,  the  greater  is  the 
tendency  of  this  portion  to  resist  such  deviation.  It  necessarily 
follows  that  whenever  the  spine  is  bent  to  one  side  the  bodies  of 
the  vertebrae  will  tend  to  go  to  the  longer  or  convex  side  of  the 
curve,  while  the  processes  will  tend  to  go  to  the  shorter  or  con- 
cave side ;  in  other  words,  the  anterior  portion  of  the  spine  will 
move  farther  from  the  vertical  than  the  posterior  portion.  But 
the  posterior  portion  is  the  portion  that  is  visible,  and  the  portion 
from  which  we  must  estimate  the  amount  of  curvature.  The 
actual  amount  of  curvature  will  therefore  always  be  greater  than 
the  apparent  curvature,  as  indicated  by  the  line  of  spinous  pro- 
cesses. Again,  the  greater  deviation  of  the  anterior  portions  of 
the  vertebrae  is  equivalent  to  a  rotation  of  each  vertebra  thus 
moved,  about  a  vertical  axis.  (Fig.  72.)  According  to  some  au- 
thorities, the  rotation  sometimes  precedes  and  leads  to  the  bend- 
ing. In  either  case  the  rotation,  if  it  is  in  the  thoracic  region, 
produces  a  pronounced  distortion  of  the  chest  by  the  effect  of  the 
torsion  upon  the  ribs. 

GENERAL  CAUSES:  MUSCULAR  WEAKNESS  AND  FATIGUE. — 
The  prime  factor  in  faulty  posture,  ever  present  and  unavoidable, 


154  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

is  the  force  of  gravitation.  It  follows  that  anything  that  causes  the 
muscles  to  be  deficient  in  power  and  efficiency  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  causation  of  all  kinds  of  bad  postures. 


FIG.  72.  Lateral  flexion  to  right  with 
spinal  column  flexed.  The  cardboard 
pointers  indicate  the  direction  of  tor- 
sion. (By  permission  of  Dr.  Lovett.) 

Muscular  weakness  is  evidently  a  serious  evil  in  this  connec- 
tion. No  one  who  lacks  the  strength  of  muscle  to  hold  himself 
erect,  can  be  expected  to  maintain  good  posture  habitually.  No 
one  can  stand  erect  for  an  indefinite  time.  It  is  a  mere  matter  of 
time  when  the  strongest  will  fall  from  complete  fatigue.  We  all 
avoid  such  extreme  fatigue  by  spending  nearly  one-half  of  our 


POSTURE)  155 

time  in  bed,  where  all  the  muscles  can  be  relaxed,  and  by  varying 
our  positions  while  standing,  sitting  and  walking,  so  as  to  rest 
some  of  the  muscles  while  using  others.  The  natural  tendency  to 
avoid  the  fatigue  of  holding  one  fixed  position  is  one  cause  of  the 
restlessness  of  children ;  they  seldom  acquire  bad  postures  until 
we  have  taught  them  to  stand  and  sit  still.  Such  occupations  as 
writing,  sewing,  reading,  etc.,  are  apt  to  cause  bad  postures,  partly 
because  the  positions  assumed  in  them  are  bad,  but  still  more  be- 
cause they  bring  on  fatigue  of  the  muscles  that  are  used  in  hold- 
ing good  posture.  The  great  problem  of  preventing  bad  postures 
is  the  problem  of  avoiding  excessive  fatigue  of  the  supporting 
muscles. 

GENERAL,  CAUSES  :  OCCUPATION. — Next  to  weakness  and  fa- 
tigue, occupation  is  the  most  important  cause  of  bad  postures. 
When  muscles  are  habitually  used  in  a  certain  position,  they  tend 
to  grow  into  the  form  given  to  them  in  that  position.  For  ex- 
ample, when  one  works  most  of  the  time  with  the  head  bent  for- 
ward to  look  closely  at  something,  the  muscles  on  the  back  of  the 
neck,  as  they  are  gradually  renewed  in  the  repair  that  accompanies 
and  follows  work,  come  to  be  longer  than  they  formerly  were ; 
when  the  arms  are  used  vigorously  in  a  forward  position,  as  in 
pushing  a  lawn  mower,  the  muscles  in  front  of  the  chest  gradu- 
ally grow  shorter,  unless  they  are  also  used  in  some  other  way  to 
counteract  the  tendency.  It  is  evident  that  these  effects  of  occupa- 
tion are  much  more  marked  in  the  young  than  with  the  older  per- 
sons, and  at  the  same  time  the  possibility  of  correction  by  gym- 
nastic exercises  is  much  greater  during  the  earlier  period. 

THE  THREE  STAGES. — In  the  history  of  a  case  of  bad  posture 
resulting  from  occupation  or  habit  there  are  three  stages.  In  the 
first  or  transient  stage,  the  posture  is  taken  because  circumstances 
favor  it.  For  example,  the  pupil  droops  forward  as  he  writes,  and 
the  clerk  leans  sidewise  against  the  counter,  but  each  leaves  the 
position  as  he  leaves  the  place  and  the  occupation.  He  can  stand 
well,  and  usually  does  so.  In  the  second  or  habitual  stage  the 
position  so  often  assumed  seems  to  be  natural  and  the  correct  one. 
The  bad  posture  goes  with  him,  and  he  feels  unnatural  if  he  stands 


156  PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 

erect.  He  has  the  muscular  strength  to  straighten  up,  but  he  has 
forgotten  how  to  do  it ;  his  muscular  sense  tells  him  he  is  straight 
when  he  is  not.  The  effect  of  the  posture  is  worse  than  before, 
simply  because  he  holds  it  all  the  time  instead  of  occasionally.  In 
the  third  or  permanent  stage  the  muscles  and  perhaps  the  bones 
have  adjusted  themselves  to  the  abnormal  posture,  and  he  lacks 
the  strength  to  correct  the  defect,  even  when  he  is  taught  how. 

REMEDIAL  MEASURES  :  GENERAL. — In  the  first  stage  it  is  only 
necessary  to  see  that  no  bad  posture  becomes  habitual.  This  de- 
mands watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  caution  given 
in  time.  To  be  taught  the  correct  standing  position  is  a  great  help 
here.  In  the  habittfal  stage  one  must  learn  over  again  the  correct 
posture  he  once  learned  as  a  child,  and  must  practice  it  until  it  be- 
comes habitual  again.  In  the  third  stage  the  work  of  the  second 
must  be  done,  but  it  has  to  be  preceded  by  a  course  of  treatment 
including  outside  force  to  aid  in  the  straightening ;  even  then  im- 
provement is  slow  and  complete  recovery  is  doubtful. 

Since  muscular  weakness  plays  such  an  important  part  in  the 
causation  of  bad  postures,  the  general  development  of  the  muscles 
that  are  used  in  maintaining  normal  posture  must  be  of  first  im- 
portance. Swedish  gymnastic  exercises  are  intended  to  accomplish 
this  purpose ;  other  forms  of  exercise  are  also  useful. 

Among  exercises  that  are  especially  good  for  all  forms  of  bad 
posture  are  those  where  the  weight  of  the  body  is  suspended  by 
the  arms ;  here  the  tendency  of  the  weight  is  to  straighten  rather 
than  to  increase  the  curvatures.  The  most  valuable  single  exercise 
is  the  fundamental  standing  position  of  gymnastics.  In  teaching 
this  exercise  the  individual  faults  of  the  pupils  are  pointed  out  and 
each  is  aided  in  the  correction  of  his  own ;  when  one  has  learned 
this  position  he  is  much  less  apt  to  reach  the  habitual  stage  of  any 
bad  posture  he  may  happen  to  assume,  for  he  knows  the  correct 
position  and  is  able  to  assume  it  at  any  time  when  he  finds  himself 
in  a  bad  posture.  Pupils  should  be  tested  individually,  and  given 
to  understand  that  it  is  expected  of  them  to  know  how  to  assume 
the  correct  fundamental  position  at  any  time ;  pupils  unable  to  do 
so  should  be  given  individual  help,  outside  of  class  hours  if  neces- 


POSTURE  157 

sary.  Often  it  is  necessary  to  push  the  pupil  into  the  correct 
position  and  then  have  him  try  to  hold  it  for  a  short  time ;  in  this 
way  he  will  gradually  gain  the  strength  and  the  coordination. 

REMEDIAL  MEASURES  :  SPECIAL. — If  the  cause  of  any  partic- 
ular defect  is  evident,  it  is  of  course  best  to  try  to  have  it  re- 
moved; the  posture  will  not  yield  promptly  to  treatment  if  the 
cause  continues  to  act.  For  example,  a  lateral  curvature  caused 
by  a  short  limb  should  first  be  treated  by  adding  a  lift  to  the  shoe 
to  equalize  the  length ;  but  in  lateral  curvatures  the  causes  and  the 
special  forms  of  treatment  are  so  difficult  that  only  a  specialist 
should  attempt  more  than  general  measures.  With  round  shoul- 
ders and  hollow  back  the  case  is  simpler,  and  an  intelligent  teacher 
with  a  fair  knowledge  of  Swedish  gymnastics  should  be  able  to 
give  effective  help  in  the  earlier  stages.  Here  the  Swedish  system 
provides  special  corrective  exercises :  the  Arch  Flexions  for  round 
shoulders,  and  the  Back  and  Abdominal  exercises  for  the  hol- 
low back. 

Often  a  lateral  curvature  in  the  habitual  stage  can  be  cor- 
rected by  using  an  auxiliary  or  "Key-note"  position.  This  is 
sometimes  raising  one  arm  upward,  or  taking  a  fallout.  By  try- 
ing all  kinds  of  arm  and  foot  positions,  one  can  usually  be  found 
which  gives  the  spine  a  perfectly  straight  position.  Now  have  the 
pupil  take  this  "Key-note"  position  until  it  is  well  learned ;  then 
have  him  try  to  return  to  fundamental  position  while  holding  the 
spine  in  the  straight  line  that  the  position  enables  him  to  get. 
Repeated  practice  of  this  kind  is  often  successful  in  early  stages 
in  accomplishing  a  complete  cure.  (Fig.  73.) 

SCHOOL  ROOM  METHODS. — In  her  book  on  "The  Posture  of 
School  Children,"  which  is  the  most  complete  and  useful  book  on 
the  subject  yet  published,  Miss  Bancroft  recommends  the  follow- 
ing three  tests  to  apply  to  pupils : 

(i)  Standing.  Look  at  the  pupils  from  the  side  and  ask 
those  to  step  aside  or  sit  down  who  do  not  stand  in  normal  pos- 
ture. This  is  sometimes  called  "The  window  pole  test,"  because  a 
straight  pole  held  vertically  beside  the  pupil  aids  a  teacher  who  is 
not  experienced  to  detect  faults  in  this  position. 


158 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


FIG.  73.    Correction  of  a  lateral  curve  by  a  suitable  key-note  position. 

(2)  Have  the  pupils  who  have  passed  the  standing  test 
march  for  four  or  five  minutes  and  as  they  do  so  pick  out  and 
eliminate  those  who  do  not  maintain  their  good  position  while 
marching. 

(3  Give  the  pupils  who  pass  these  two  tests  a  few  gymnastic 
exercises,  including  neck  firm,  arm  raising  forward  upward,  trunk 
incline  forward,  and  head  backward  bend.  Pupils  who  pass  the 
triple  test  are  considered  normal  in  posture  and  are  placed  in  a 
separate  line  or  division  of  the  class  during  all  gymnastic  work. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF   EXERCISE. 

Some  of  the  effects  of  exercise  are  immediate  and  others 
appear  later ;  some  are  desirable  and  to  be  secured  to  the  greatest 
extent  that  is  possible;  some  are  harmful  or  unpleasant  and  are 
to  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible.  The  study  we  have  made  thus 
far  is  mainly  to  enable  us  to  conduct  exercises  so  as  to  secure  the 
largest  measure  of  good  and  avoid  as  much  as. possible  of  the 
bad  effects. 

Probably  the  first  effect  of  exercise  is  a  rise  of  temperature. 
This  is  caused  by  the  great  amount  of  heat  produced  by  the  chem- 
ical action  in  the  muscles.  As  before  stated,  this  is  usually  nearly 
85%  of  all  the  energy  liberated ;  it  is  quickly  carried  by  the  blood 
from  the  muscle  to  all  parts  of  the  body  and  soon  gives  rise  to  a 
higher  temperature  of  the  whole  body. 

There  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  amount  of  heat 
developed  during  exercise  due  to  the  condition  of  the  individual. 
In  those  who  are  ill  or  in  poor  physical  condition  a  larger  portion 
of  the  energy  set  free  is  in  the  form  of  heat ;  in  well  trained  ath- 
letes it  is  much  less.  Professional  bicycle  riders  have  been  found 
who  could  transform  from  36  to  40%  of  all  the  energy  of  their 
food  into  muscular  work.  This  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  train- 
ing, or  habitual  bodily  exercise; — the  machine  transforms  more 
of  the  latent  energy  of  the  food  into  muscular  work  and  wastes 
less  of  it  in  heat.  Most  observing  persons  have  noticed  how  much 
more  they  become  heated  by  a  certain  amount  of  work  when  they 
are  unused  to  it  and  how  they  gradually  acquire  the  ability  to 
work  hard  without  being  overheated.  This  ability  is  one  of  the 
most  important  things  to  be  secured  by  the  habitual  practice  of 
vigorous  bodily  exercise. 

The  amount  of  heat  produced  in  proportion  to  the  work  done  is 
dependent  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  kind  of  work.    A  mus- 


160  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

cle  should  be  suitably  loaded  to  give  the  best  result  in  work.  As 
before  stated,  it  is  shown  by  experiment  and  generally  verified  by 
experience  that  a  moderate  load  is  best.  Shovelers  are  found  to 
do  most  in  a  day  or  a  week  when  their  shovels  hold  about  21 
pounds  of  the  material  moved ;  handlers  of  freight  accomplish 
most  when  it  is  in  parcels  of  moderate  size.  When  we  increase 
the  load  until  the  muscle  cannot  shorten,  as  in  pushing  against 
a  wall  or  trying  to  lift  too  great  a  weight,  practically  all  the 
energy  of  the  muscle  takes  the  form  of  heat.  There  is  always 
a  considerable  amount  of  this  so-called  "static  contraction"  in  the 
body,  because  many  muscles  have  to  contract  in  all  forms  of 
exercise  to  hold  the  framework  of  the  body  in  position.  In  gen- 
eral, exercises  requiring  much  of  the  body  to  be  held  still  are  more 
heating.  Turning  a  bit  or  screw-driver,  for  example,  warms  one 
up  rapidly,  because  of  the  need  to  contract  so  many  muscles 
strongly  to  prevent  motion. 

The  body  temperature  may  be  raised  from  the  normal  (98.6 
Fahr.)  to  102  or  even  higher  by  vigorous  work.  To  a  certain 
point  this  rise  of  temperature  is  beneficial ;  it  increases  the  strength 
and  speed  of  the  muscular  contractions  and  seems  to  improve 
nervous  activity.  An  athlete  can  do  his  best  after  he  is  "warmed 
up,"  the  actual  increase  of  temperature  being  a  part  of  the  reason 
for  it.  As  soon,  however,  as  a  certain  increase  has  been  passed 
he  begins  to  lose  instead  of  gain,  so  that  the  rise  in  temperature 
must  be  very  limited  to  be  of  use  rather  than  a  hindrance. 

When  a  muscle  mounted  on  the  myograph  is  set  to  work,  the 
force  of  contraction  increases  for  a  time.  This  is  partly  due  to 
the  warming  up  of  which  we  have  just  been  thinking,  but  the 
increase  still  is  present  if  the  rise  of  temperature  is  counteracted. 
The  commonly  accepted  explanation  is  that  the  waste  products 
of  muscular  action,  when  present  in  small  amounts  and  for  a 
short  time,  are  stimulating  in  their  effects  and  aid  the  muscle  in 
its  work.  It  has  been  shown  that  lactic  acid,  potassium  phosphate 
and  carbon  .dioxide,  when  made  to  circulate  through  an  acting 
muscle,  separately  or  together,  at  first  increase  the  force  of  con- 
traction if  not  too  strong.  This  shows  that  there  is  another  benefit 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  EXERCISE  l6l 

secured  from  a  "warming  up"  exercise  besides  the  actual  rise  in 
temperature. 

When  the  work  is  vigorous  and  continuous  this  increase  in 
working  ability  soon  changes  to  a  decrease  and  ends  in  complete 
inability  of  the  muscle  to  contract  after  a  time.  The  final  stage 
is  exhaustion ;  the  gradual  loss  of  power  leading  to  exhaustion  is 
called  fatigue. 

When  fatigue  is  brought  on  rapidly  by  vigorous  work,  as  in 
heavy  gymnastics,  lifting,  climbing,  etc.,  it  is  probably  largely 
due  to  the  rapid  accumulation  in  the  muscle  of  waste  products  in 
sufficient  amount  to  lessen  the  power  of  contraction  and  also  to 
paralyze  the  motor  nerve  endings  which  convey  the  impulses  that 
give  rise  to  the  contraction.  This  suggests  the  advantage  of 
exercising  where  there  is  abundance  of  pure  air  and  a  like  ad- 
vantage in  having  the  heart  and  lungs  in  good  condition  as  a 
means  of  postponing  fatigue.  It  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  jump- 
ers find  an  advantage  in  massaging  their  leg  muscles  between 
jumps,  to  hasten  the  elimination  of  the  waste  products  through 
the  blood ;  also  a  reason  why  fatigue  is  slower  to  come  on  in 
rhythmic  movements  than  in  static  contractions,  because  the 
former  aids  the  circulation  and  removal  of  waste  by  the  pumping 
action  of  the  rhythmic  contractions  and  relaxations  while  static 
contraction  compresses  the  veins  and  slows  it. 

In  prolonged  and  milder  exercise,  as  in  walking  for  several 
hours,  the  circulation  and  breathing  are  able  to  dispose  of  the 
waste  easily,  and  then  the  fatigue  that  results  is  apt  to  be  due  to 
the  gradual  using  up  of  the  food  supply.  This  is  why  such  exer- 
cise is  apt  to  increase  the  appetite,  and  also  why  the  fatigue  can 
be  relieved  on  the  way  by  eating,  preferably  of  starch  or  sugar, 
because  these  foods  are  quickly  absorbed  and  usable  by  the 
muscles. 

In  some  very  rapid  exercise,  especially  sprinting,  lack  of  suf- 
ficient oxygen  in  the  muscles  is  believed  to  play  an  important 
part  in  the  rapid  increase  of  fatigue.  Nerve  endings  are  espe- 
cially dependent  on  a  full  supply  of  oxygen  to  do  their  work.  The 
habit  of  divers  of  inhaling  several  forced  breaths  before  going 
down  and  the  evident  advantage  they  derive  from  it  are  based  on 


1 62  PHYSICAL,    TRAINING 

this  idea,  and  it  is  claimed  that  sprinters  can  be  helped  to  win 
by  inhaling  pure  oxygen  at  the  moment  they  experience  the  acute 
lack  of  air. 

It  is  claimed  by  a  German  scholar  that  there  is  a  "toxin"  that 
causes  fatigue  and  that  the  body  produces  a  corresponding  "anti- 
toxin" to  neutralize  it.  Some  look  forward  to  the  day  when  one 
can  postpone  fatigue  indefinitely  by  securing  a  supply  of  this  anti- 
toxin and  having  it  injected  into  the  blood  at  the  proper  times. 
The  more  reasonable  plan  is  to  get  the  body  in  the  habit,  through 
active  living,  of  manufacturing  this  antitoxin  and  keeping  it  on 
hand.  The  safest  and  best  antidote  for  fatigue  is  that  produced 
by  one's  own  body,  and  it  will  produce  it  in  goodly  quantities  if 
proper  habits  of  training  are  followed. 

It  is  interesting  to  inquire  how  much  of  the  neuro-muscular 
mechanism  is  subject  to  fatigue.  Nerve  fibers  are  sensitive  to 
the  presence  of  waste  products  but  do  not  produce  these  products 
in  any  appreciable  amount.  Nerve  cells  show  evident  signs  of 
fatigue  under  the  microscope.  The  nerve  cells  of  birds  that  have 
been  resting  in  a  dark  room  look  very  different  from  those  of  like 
birds  that  have  been  unusually  active.  Birds  that  have  flown  long 
distances  have  been  shown  to  have  excessive  amounts  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  their  nervous  as  well  as  their  muscular  tissues.  All 
this  shows  that  the  nervous  system  shares  in  the  fatigue  as  well 
as  the  muscles.  It  is  believed  that  when  fatigued  somewhat  the 
muscles  require  much  stronger  stimula  than  when  rested,  because 
of  the  effect  of  the  waste  products  on  the  motor  endings  and  the 
inability  of  the  latter  to  transmit  the  impulses  to  the  muscle  tissue. 
This  in  turn  rapidly  fatigues  the  nerve  cells  that  send  those  im- 
pulses, so  that  the  most  extreme  fatigue  is  in  the  nerve  centers 
rather  than  in  the  muscles. 

Fatigue,  wherever  located,  is  for  normal  individuals  a  per- 
fectly natural  and  harmless  condition,  and  cannot  be  entirely 
avoided.  The  best  way  to  avoid  extreme  fatigue  is  to  keep  the 
body  up  to  a  good  condition,  well  above  the  usual  needs  of  the  day, 
so  that  extreme  fatigue  will  not  be  necessary. 

Besides  the  motor  fatigue  we  have  been  discussing  there  is 
a  sensory  fatigue, — a  feeling  of  weariness  that  often  accompanies 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  EXERCISE  163 

the  true  fatigue.  This  is  often  confused  with  motor  fatigue  and 
a  clear  distinction  is  not  made  between  them.  Sensory  fatigue, 
the  "tired  feeling,"  is  the  effect  of  the  waste  products  on  sensory 
instead  of  motor  nerve  endings.  It  often  is  due  to  something  else 
than  work, — over-eating,  poor  ventilation,  fever,  or  ennui.  The 
people  who  suffer  most  from  this  form  of  fatigue  are  those  who 
do  the  least,-^-people  whose  inactive  lives  makes  them  so  weak 
that  the  least  exertion  or  change  of  conditions  upsets  them  com- 
pletely. The  best  way  to  avoid  sensory  as  well  as  motor  fatigue 
is  to  be  strong. 

When  muscles  are  used  with  much  more  vigor  than  usual 
they  are  apt  to  become  stiff  and  sore.  Here  again  there  is  a  dis- 
tinction to  be  made  between  the  motor  and  the  sensory  phase. 
Stiffness  is  the  inability  of  the  muscle  to  do  its  best  work;  sore- 
ness is  the  condition  of  the  sensory  nerve  endings  that  gives  rise 
to  pain  when  the  muscle  is  contracted.  Stiffness  is  caused  in  part 
by  tearing  the  muscle  fibers  and  by  the  presence  of  poisonous 
waste  products  of  unusual  character  that  are  nof  normally  present. 
Hot  applications  and  massage  tend  to  prevent  and  relieve  the  con- 
dition. The  only  prevention  is  to  advance  in  vigor  so  gradually 
that  no  injury  of  the  kind  will  be  received.  This  is  almost  im- 
possible, as  a  mis-step  or  a  loss  of  balance  is  apt  to  bring  it  on. 
Soreness  is  due  to  similar  causes,  tearing  and  bruising  of  the  sen- 
sory endings  and  the  presence  of  waste  products  that  have  an 
unusually  irritating  effect  upon  them.  The  practice  of  taking  a 
hot  bath  immediately  following  exercise  is  the  most  efficient  way 
to  relieve  and  prevent  these  harmful  effects,  besides  taking  pains 
not  to  increase  the  vigor  of  the  work  too  suddenly.  Warming  up 
before  putting  forth  extreme  effort  is  also  important. 

One  effect  of  exercise  upon  the  nervous  system  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  nature  and  particularly  on  the  speed  of  the  move- 
ments. Slow  and  rhythmic  movements  have  a  quieting  effect  on 
the  nerves  ;  fast  movements  are  irritating  and  stimulating.  A  class 
that  was  quiet  and  self-controlled  during  the  most  of  a  class  hour 
will  often  become  boisterous  and  excited  after  a  short  run.  The 
rapid  stimulation  of  the  sensory  endings  in  the  tissues  by  rapid 
movements  seems  to  produce  an  excitable  condition  of  the  nervous 


1 64  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

system,  and  the  corresponding  effect  of  slow  and  rhythmic  move- 
ments is  quieting. 

Under  normal  conditions  the  repair  that  takes  place  during 
rest  more  than  makes  good  the  waste  that  occurred  during  the 
exercise.  The  result  is  that  parts  used  develop  in  size,  strength, 
endurance,  speed,  and  general  vitality.  This  development  is  due 
in  part  to  the  increased  blood  supply  during  the  exercise  and  in 
part  to  the  increased  absorption  of  food  materials  by  the  proto- 
plasm, which  seems  to  have  a  kind  of  intelligence  for  selecting  that 
amount  and  kind  of  food  material  best  suited  to  the  demands 
made  upon  it.  The  muscle  that  has  been  used  rebuilds  its  tissues 
so  as  to  be  able  to  better  endure  the  same  work  again.  Particular 
powers  demanded  of  it  are  provided  for;  efforts  of  strength  bring 
increased  strength,  efforts  of  speed  cause  increased  ability  to  act 
quickly,  and  the  same  is  true  of  endurance  and  other  qualities. 

Under  normal  conditions,  the  more  work  a  muscle  does,  the 
more  rapidly  it  develops.  There  is  a  limit  to  the  degree  of  devel- 
opment an  individual  can  attain,  but  it  is  rare  for  an  individual  to 
approach  this  limit  even  remotely.  The  amazing  strength  and 
endurance  exhibited  by  the  professional  "strong  men"  of  the  circus 
and  theatre,  who  lift  tons  and  break  heavy  iron  chains  with  theii 
hands  or  their  teeth,  and  bicycle  racers  who  perform  in  one  da) 
the  work  of  ten  or  twelve  laborers  illustrate  how  far  most  of  us 
are  from  attaining  our  possibilities.  Football  players  and  soldiers 
in  training  develop  great  power  and  ability  under  five  or  six 
times  the  work  done  by  the  average  laboring  man.  The  general 
law  is  that  the  more  a  muscle  works  the  more  and  the  faster  it 
develops,  and  the  limits  of  the  law  are  far  above  what  we  are 
inclined  to  suppose.  It  is  irregular  methods  of  exercise,  leading 
to  stiffness,  soreness,  and  injury  to  the  heart  and  blood  vessels 
that  causes  most  of  the  harm  from  severe  exercise,  and  not  the 
severity  itself. 

The  development  of  strength  and  other  qualities  mentioned 
above  is  not  development  of  muscle  alone  but  quite  as  much 
development  of  nerve  cells.  The  ability  to  run  far  or  fast,  to  put 
the  shot  or  to  jump  a  great  distance  is  quite  as  much  in  the 


THE  EFFECTS  OI-  EXERCISE)  165 

development  of  the  nerve  cells  and  endings  involved  in  muscular 
movement  as  in  that  of  muscle. 

The  amount  of  exercise  that  is  desirable  for  a  person  who 
wishes  to  improve  his  physique  depends  on  two  or  three  considera- 
tions. 

(1)  The  physical  condition  of  the  individual.    What  is  just 
enough  for  one  is  far  too  much  for  another  and  altogether  too 
little  for  a  third.    One  just  recovering  from  a  long  and  severe  ill- 
ness may  be  injured  by  the  exertion  of  sitting  in  a  chair,  while 
a  man  in  hard  training  for  it  can  turn  handsprings  or  climb  ladders 
for  hours  at  a  time  with  no  danger  of  overdoing.    One  of  the  best 
tests  of  the  severity  of  one's  exercise  is  whether  he  can  fully  re- 
cover from  it  by  a  night's  rest. 

(2)  The  other  demands  that  are  to  be  met  during  the  day. 
A  student  or  teacher  who  must  spend  from  eight  to  ten  hours  a 
day  on  his  assigned  duties  would  fail  to  get  benefit  from  an  amount 
of  exercise  entirely  suited  to  a  soldier  or  a  professional  athlete. 
If  he  tries  it  the  fatigue  resulting  from  his  exercise  will  unfit  him 
for  study  and  the  time  required  for  mental  work  will  prevent  him 
from  having  the  amount  of   rest  needed  to   recover   from  the 
fatigue.    A  child,  needing  long  hours  of  sleep  and  rest  to  accom- 
pany his  rapid  growth,  cannot  profit   from  as   long  continuous 
exercise  as  one  who  has  reached  full  size  and  maturity. 

(3)  Conditions  surrounding  the  work  and  hygienic  care  of 
the  body.     One  can  push  exercise  and  development  to  a  much 
greater  pace  with  good  bathing  facilities  and  restful  living  condi- 
tions.   Good  and  wholesome  food  and  plenty  of  it  are  indispens- 
able. 

Most  people  would  profit  greatly  by  setting  apart  from  the 
hours  of  the  day  more  time  than  they  now  allot  for  bodily  develop- 
ment. It  would  result  in  better  power  for  doing  what  must  be 
done  and  reserve  power  to  prevent  illness  and  accident.  Most 
people  can  afford  more  time  for  it,  which  could  be  taken  from  the 
time  they  give  to  idle  and  injurious  pastimes. 

EXERCISE  AND  THE  RATE  OF  THE  HEAR'T. — The  lightest  bodily 
exercise,  such  as  operating  a  typewriter  or  playing  on  a  piano, 
causes  a  sudden  increase  in  the  rate  of  the  heart.  When  such 


1 66  PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 

exercises  are  taken  with  great  rapidity  the  rate  goes  quickly  up  to 
90  or  100  beats  per  minute,  continues  at  about  this  rate  as  long  as 
the  speed  of  the  exercise  continues,  and  quickly  returns  to  the 
normal  rate  as  soon  as  the  exercise  stops. 

With  exercises  of  moderate  vigor,  such  as  a  rapid  walk,  the 
rate  goes  up  to  about  125 ;  a  moderate  run  may  bring  it  up  to 
150;  races  or  games  often  produce  a  rate  of  175  or  200.  A 
heart  rate  of  250  per  minute  has  been  known  at  the  end  of  a 
bicycle  race.  In  all  vigorous  work  the  change  in  the  rate  of  heart 
shows  two  well  marked  stages ;  a  rapid  primary  rise,  from  two  or 
three  minutes,  followed  by  a  more  gradual  secondary  rise  that 
continues  until  the  exercise  stops.  When  the  work  stops  the  re- 
turn of  the  normal  rate  has  two  corresponding  stages ;  a  rapid 
primary  fall  followed  by  a  gradual  secondary  fall.  The  rapid 
primary  changes  come  about  through  the  action  of  the  cardiac 
center ;  the  causes  of  the  slow  secondary  changes  are  not  definitely 
known. 

The  response  of  the  heart  to  the  influence  of  exercise  is  ex- 
ceedingly prompt.  When  one  suddenly  changes  from  a  condition 
of  rest  to  vigorous  exercise,  the  very  next  heart  beat  is  quicker 
than  the  last  one  during  rest.  The  rate  increases  very  rapidly 
in  hard  work,  sometimes  doubling  within  30  seconds  from  the  time 
the  work  begins.  The  primary  fall  on  cessation  of  exercise  is 
equally  prompt,  and  rapid ;  for  this  reason  the  counting  of  the 
pulse  after  stopping  gives  little  evidence  as  to  the  rate  while 
working. 

DILATION  OF  ARTERIES. — One  effect  of  exercise  on  the  ar- 
teries is  brought  about  by  the  action  of  the  vasomotor  system. 
When  certain  muscles  begin  to  work,  the  presence  of  waste  prod- 
ucts in  them  influences  the  sensory  nerve  endings  there,  and  the 
vasomotor  center  responds  by  causing  a  dilation  of  the  arteries 
leading  to  the  working  muscles,  at  the  same  time  constricting 
those  leading  elsewhere,  especially  those  leading  to  the  digestive 
organs.  The  result  is  a  gradual  increase  in  the  blood  supply  to 
the  working  parts,  beginning  a  few  minutes  after  the  work  begins 
and  slowly  increasing  for  half  an  hour  or  more.  This  slow  change 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  EXERCISE  i67 

is  characteristic  of  the  involuntary  muscle  of  the  vessel  walls.  On 
cessation  of  the  exercise  the  arteries  return  to  their  normal  size  by 
a  similarly  slow  change. 

The  dilation  of  the  arteries,  by  opening  up  a  wider  passage 
for  the  blood,  lessens  the  work  of  the  heart,  which  will  be  ex- 
plained more  fully  in  connection  with  the  effect  of  the  arterial 
pressure.  This  is  an  important  reason  for  warming  up  gradually 
before  attempting  to  do  one's  best,  especially  in  speed  contests. 

The  arteries  are  so  firm  and  have  so  thick  walls  that  they 
retain  their  cylindrical  shape  in  spite  of  the  pressure  exerted  upon 
them  by  the  contracting  muscles ;  the  veins  are  more  easily  com- 
pressed, and  are  flattened  and  the  blood  squeezed  out  of  them  with 
each  contraction.  The  presence  of  valves  at  frequent  intervals  in 
the  veins  brings  it  about  that  the  blood  forced  out  of  a  portion 
of  vein  in  this  way  must  move  onward  toward  the  heart  and  not 
back  toward  the  capillaries;  as  the  muscles  relax  the  veins  that 
have  been  pressed  upon  and  emptied  are  filled  again  from  the 
other  side.  It  is  readily  seen,  therefore,  that  rythmically  repeated 
exercises  increase  the  flow  of  blood  in  the  veins,  hastening  it 
toward  the  heart. 

The  contraction  of  muscle  has  a  similar  effect  on  the  lymph 
in  the  spaces  between  the  muscle  fibers  and  in  the  lymph  vessels. 
The  vigorous  contraction  of  the  muscle  squeezes  the  lymph  out  of 
the  spaces  between  the  fibers  and  sends  it  along  the  lymph  vessels, 
which,  like  the  veins,  have  valves.  This  action  on  the  venous  blood 
and  lymph  is  what  gives  massage  its  great  value,  since  in  this  re- 
spect it  answers  the  purpose  of  exercise.  The  increase  of  circula- 
tion of  the  fluids  in  the  tissues  is  of  special  value  in  hastening  re- 
covery from  sprains  and  similar  injuries. 

EXERCISE  AND  ARTERIAL  PRESSURE. — With  exercise  of  mod- 
erate vigor,  such  as  riding  a  bicycle  over  an  ordinary  road  at 
eight  or  ten  miles  an  hour,  we  get  changes  in  pulse  rate  and  ar- 
terial pressure,  as  follows :  the  pressure  rises  rapidly  at  first,  fol- 
lowing the  primary  increase  in  the  rate  of  the  pulse,  to  a  height 
of  1 80  or  200  mm.  of  mercury,  a  height  reached  in  eight  or  ten 
minutes.  This  is  due  to  the  increase  in  heart  action,  pumping 


1 68  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

much  more  blood  than  usual  into  the  arteries.  Now  the  slow 
relaxation  of  the  involuntary  muscle  in  the  vessel  walls  begins  to 
have  an  opposite  effect,  dilation  being  produced  through  the 
action  of  the  vasomotor  center.  The  muscular  action  sets  free 
great  quantities  of  heat,  and  this  gives  rise  to  impulses  that  incite 
the  vasomotor  center  to  dilate  the  arteries  going  to  the  skin,  so 
as  to  hasten  the  loss  of  heat.  Dilation  of  arteries  in  both  muscles 
and  skin  at  the  same  time  at  once  diminish  the  resistance  to  the 
blood  flow  so  much  that  the  pressure  stops  rising  and  begins  to 
fall.  Through  the  half  hour  that  the  ride  continues  the  pressure 
continues  to  fall,  while  the  pulse  rate  continues  to  rise ;  this  shows 
that  the  dilation  of  vessels  keeps  on  increasing.  The  highest  pres- 
sure is  soon  after  beginning  the  ride. 

Upon  the  sudden  cessation  of  the  exercise  there  is  a  rapid  fall 
of  arterial  pressure  which  soon  reaches  a  point  below  the  normal. 
This  happens  because  the  heart  action  lessens  quickly  while  the 
arteries  are  still  widely  dilated,  and  with  diminished  heart  action 
and  widely  dilated  arteries  we  necessarily  have  an  exceedingly  low 
pressure.  Sometimes,  at  the  end  of  a  hard  race,  a  man  faints  as 
a  result  of  the  low  pressure  brought  about  in  this  way.  As  the 
arteries  gradually  constrict,  the  pressure  slowly  rises  until  the 
normal  is  reached  again. 

The  highest  pressure  that  occurred  in  this  case  might  have 
been  avoided  by  beginning  more  slowly,  so  that  the  arteries  might 
have  time  to  dilate  before  the  most  vigorous  work  was  done.  The 
subnormal  pressure  after  stopping  might  have  been  avoided,  by 
diminishing  the  work  gradually  instead  of  stopping  suddenly,  or 
by  taking  a  suitable  bath,  which  would  stimulate  the  falling  heart 
action  and  hasten  the  constriction  of  the  vessels. 

With  more  violent  exercise,  such  as  riding  a  bicycle  up  hill 
or  at  utmost  speed,  the  arterial  pressure  will  mount  higher  and 
higher  until  the  rider  is  obliged  to  stop,  in  spite  of  the  dilation  of 
the  arteries.  In  such  exercise  the  heart  action  becomes  so  great 
that  no  dilation  of  vessels  that  can  be  brought  about  can  com- 
pensate for  it.  Warming  up  before  such  a  test  will  be  of  great 
help,  since  complete  dilation  of  vessels  will  permit  the  blood  to 


THE  EJECTS  OF  EXERCISE;  169 

pass  with  less  pressure,  but  in  spite  of  all  the  pressure  will  go  up 
to  the  danger  line  if  one  works  hard  and  long  enough. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  HEART  AND  BLOOD  VESSELS. — The  heart  de- 
velops with  increased  exercise  the  same  as  other  muscles,  and  the 
amount  of  development  follows  the  same  general  law,  viz :  the 
more  exercise  the  heart  has,  the  more  it  will  develop.  Heart  mus- 
cle is  also  liable  to  fatigue  and  strain,  the  same  as  other  muscle, 
and  these  effects  are  much  more  serious  matters  here  than  in  most 
muscles.  If  one's  arm  is  severely  fatigued  or  strained,  he  can  rest 
it  until  it  recovers  with  no  greater  hardship  than  a  little  pain  and 
inconvenience ;  but  life  itself  depends  on  the  heart's  being  able  to 
do  its  regular  work  every  minute.  Now  some  exercises  work  the 
heart  harder  than  they  work  the  muscles ;  some  exercises  tend 
to  make  the  doer  forget  how  nearly  exhausted  he  is ;  it  is  import- 
ant therefore  that  teachers  should  control  the  exercise,  especially 
of  those  unused  to  it,  so  as  to  avoid  excess  of  work  for  the  heart. 

It  should  be  noticed  first  of  all  that  the  term  "excess  of  work" 
is  a  relative  term,  depending  as  much  on  the  condition  and  degree 
of  development  as  an  individual  as  upon  the  amount  of  work 
he  does.  One  just  recovering  from  a  long  and  severe  illness  may 
overwork  the  heart  by  the  exertion  involved  in  standing  up  and 
dressing  himself,  while  a  trained  athlete  can  run,  swim,  or  prac- 
tice heavy  gymnastics  for  hours  without  any  danger  of  such  in- 
jury. This  is  not  only  true  of  different  persons,  but  it  is  to  a  great 
extent  true  of  the  same  person  at  different  times.  An  amount  of 
practice  that  would  cause  heart  strain  in  every  member  of  a  basket 
ball  team  may  be  perfectly  safe  for  the  same  team  after  a  few 
weeks  of  progressive  work.* 

Exercise  also  brings  about  the  development  of  the  muscle  of 
the  arterial  walls.  The  changes  in  the  caliber  of  these  vessels,  by 
action  of  the  vasomotor  center,  constitutes  the  proper  exercises  of 
these  muscle  fibers,  increasing  the  facility  with  which  they  change 
their  size  and  making  them  stronger  and  more  elastic.  The  im- 
portance of  this  in  relation  to  health  is  indicated  by  an  old  maxim 
of  medical  men  that  "a  man  is  as  old  as  his  arteries."  An  athlete's 
arteries  respond  more  quickly  and  fully  to  vasomotor  control  than 


1 70  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

those  of  an  untrained  person,  rendering  him  less  liable  to  over- 
work the  heart. 

To  develop  the  heart  rapidly  and  safely  it  is  only  necessary 
to  grade  the  exercise  carefully,  so  as  to  make  it  a  little  more  vig- 
orous each  day  without  any  sudden  increase.  By  following  this 
plan  the  heart  can  soon  be  brought  to  a  condition  where  vigorous 
exercise  will  not  cause  any  signs  of  overwork. 

The  exercises  causing  greatest  heart  action  are  those  which 
bring  into  strong  action  many  of  the  largest  muscles  of  the  body 
at  the  same  time  and  with  great  rapidity,  so  as  to  use  up  a  great 
amount  of  fuel  and  oxygen  and  set  free  a  great  quantity  of  waste 
products.  The  best  examples  are  running,  swimming,  wrestling, 
and  those  games  involving  rapid  movement  of  the  whole  body  by 
action  of  the  lower  limbs.  The  size  of  the  muscle  district  in  action, 
the  speed  of  the  movements,  and  their  vigor,  are  three  elements 
involved  equally  in  the  result.  If  the  muscle  district  is  small,  as 
in  piano  playing  or  club  swinging ;  if  the  speed  is  slow  as  in  pois- 
ing and  balancing,  or  if  the  vigor  of  movement  is  small  as  in  walk- 
ing and  facings,  the  effect  on  the  heart  is  relatively  mild. 

INJURY  OF  THE  HEART  BY  EXERCISE. — Injury  of  the  heart  by 
exercise  is  usually  one  of  two  kinds ;  chronic  fatigue  or  strain. 
Chronic  fatigue  of  the  heart  gives  a  feeling  of  general  lassitude 
and  a  lack  of  endurance  that  athletes  call  being  "stale."  It  results 
from  exercise  calling  for  greatly  increased  heart  action  that  is 
too  long  continued,  or  from  disease  or  faulty  nutrition.  Stale- 
ness  is  most  common  among  the  players  of  games  and  those  who 
engage  in  competitive  sports,  because  of  their  anxiety  to  get  into 
form  too  soon  after  the  period  of  illness  or  inaction.  If  one  is 
stale  the  heart  beats  too  fast  all  the  time,  and  the  rate  goes  up  too 
quickly  with  any  slight  exertion,  although  no  abnormal  condition 
of  the  heart  may  be  found  on  examination.  The  only  remedy  is 
complete  rest  and  attention  to  diet  and  general  health  until  the 
condition  passes  off ;  medical  treatment  may  help. 

Strain  of  the  heart  sometimes  causes  dilation,  which  is  a 
stretching  of  the  heart  muscle,  so  that  the  heart  is  enlarged  and 
its  walls  thin  and  weak.  The  symptoms  are  like  those  of  staleness. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  EXERCISE  17 1 

only  more  severe,  and  examination  shows  the  enlargement  of  the 
heart,  which  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  incomplete  closure  of 
one  or  more  of  the  valves,  because  their  orifices  are  stretched  so 
that  the  valve  flaps  fail  to  cover  them.  This  condition  is  brought 
on  by  violent  exertion  by  those  in  whom  the  heart  has  not  been 
prepared  for  the  strain ;  and  the  cause  of  the  dilation  of  the  heart 
is  probably  an  excessive  pressure  in  the  arteries,  such  that  the 
heart  is  not  strong  enough  to  empty  itself,  and  stretches  its  own 
walls  instead.  Dilation  of  the  heart  is  a  serious  condition,  and 
often  requires  years  for  recovery;  it  may  not  entirely  recover  at 
all.  Those  suffering  from  dilation  must  avoid  all  vigorous  exercise 
as  long  as  the  condition  lasts.  It  most  often  occurs  among  men 
and  women  who  ordinarily  take  little  or  no  exercise,  but  who 
suddenly  have  to  exert  themselves  to  their  utmost,  as  in  running 
to  catch  a  train  or  going  up  several  flights  of  stairs  rapidly.  The 
frequency  of  this  injury  and  the  serious  nature  of  it  are  strong 
reasons  for  taking  exercise  enough  to  keep  the  heart  strong. 
Young  persons  recover  from  this  injury  much  more  readily  than 
older  ones.  It  is  not  unusual  among  young  athletes  at  the  end 
of  an  important  race. 

EXERCISE  AND  BREATHING. — As  soon  as  one  begins  any  light 
exercise,  such  as  walking,  the  increased  production  of  carbon 
dioxide  affects  the  respiratory  center  and  breathing  is  increased. 
It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  one's  breathing  increases  to  about 
double  the  usual  amount  before  he  is  able  to  sense  any  change. 
With  vigorous  exercise  the  amount  of  air  breathed  and  of  carbon 
dioxide  exhaled  is  sometimes  as  high  as  six  times  the  normal 
amount. 

The  breathing  movements  are  usually  both  deeper  and  faster 
in  vigorous  work,  but  not  always  so  ;  the  breathing  tends  to  follow 
the  rythm  of  the  bodily  movements  when  they  are  rhythmical,  as 
in  running,  walking,  bicycling,  etc.,  and  the  depth  changes  to  com- 
pensate lack  in  rapidity. 

Breathlessness.  The  general  feeling  of  discomfort  that  occurs 
in  the  chest  in  such  exercises  as  running  is  usually  called  "being 
out  of  breath,"  but  the  difficulty  is  as  often  with  the  heart  as  with 


172  PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 

the  breathing.  Breathlessness  occurs  in  those  who  practice  run- 
ning or  games  when  unused  to  so  severe  exercise,  and  is  to  be 
avoided  by  gradually  habituating  the  lungs  to  the  work.  Some- 
times the  symptoms  pass  off  on  persisting  in  the  exercise,  giving 
the  condition  called  "second  wind."  The  cause  of  this  phenom- 
enon is  not  definitely  known,  but  is  apparently  related  to  the  dila- 
tion of  the  blood  vessels  taking  place  after  work  begins,  lowering 
the  arterial  pressure  and  so  lessening  the  work  of  the  heart. 

RESPIRATORY  DEVELOPMENT. — The  breathing  muscles  develop 
with  exercise  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  other  muscles,  except 
that  they  are  made  to  work  more  than  usual  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  body  rather  than  by  voluntary  effort.  The  exercises  causing 
greatest  increase  in  the  breathing  are  the  same  as  those  that  have 
been  mentioned  in  explaining  development  of  the  heart.  The 
lungs  are  also  developed  by  exercise,  since  it  sends  great  quantities 
of  blood  through  them  and  causes  a  filling  of  air-cells  that  are  not 
filled  at  all  in  quiet  breathing.  It  is  in  these  unused  cells  that  the 
disease  germs  get  a  foothold,  making  it  useful  to  have  them 
opened  up  frequently  by  deep  breathing.  On  the  other  hand, 
breathlessness,  if  excessive,  weakens  the  lungs  and  makes  them 
liable  to  disease  also. 

Voluntary  deep  breathing  exercises  are  often  used  and  are 
good  to  exercise  the  breathing  muscles  mildly  and  to  open  up  the 
unused  air  cells ;  deep  breathing  also  stretches  the  chest  walls  so 
as  to  make  the  ribs  move  more  easily  and  at  the  same  time  edu- 
cates the  respiratory  center  to  make  wider  excursions  of  the  mus- 
cles in  unconscious  breathing.  All  these  effects  are  beneficial  and 
make  voluntary  breathing  exercises  a  valuable  part  of  physical 
training.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  taking  in  of  great  amounts 
of  air,  as  in  deep  breathing,  when  the  system  does  not  demand  it 
is  not  natural,  and  is  likely  to  irritate  and  thus  weaken  the  lungs. 
This  may  be  an  objection  to  the  deep  breathing  exercises  if  taken 
apart  from  other  work,  but  teachers  of  gymnastics  usually  give 
them  at  the  close  of  the  lesson,  when  the  exercise  taken  has  put  the 
system  in  condition  to  benefit  from  the  increased  breathing.  At 
such  a  time  no  bad  effects  are  found. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  EXERCISE  173 

TAKING  COLD  AFTER  EXERCISE. — Anyone  taking  vigorous 
exercise  and  not  following  it  by  proper  hygienic  precautions  is 
apt  to  experience  what  is  commonly  called  "taking  cold."  Colds 
are  usually  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  mucous  membranes, 
either  in  the  respiratory  passages  or  in  the  digestive  tract.  Two 
conditions  that  may  follow  exercise  are  apt  to  set  up  these  in- 
flammations, or  to  make  them  worse  if  already  present. 

The  first  of  these  conditions  is  the  fall  of  arterial  pressure  to 
a  point  below  normal.  This  results  in  deficient  feeding  of  the 
tissues  and  lowering  of  their  vitality  as  a  consequence.  Disease 
germs  are  generally  present  in  large  numbers  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, but  in  favorable  conditions  the  tissues  are  able  to  resist 
their  attacks ;  with  the  lowered  vitality  due  to  low  arterial  pres- 
sure, especially  when  the  temperature  is  somewhat  high,  they  are 
better  able  to  gain  an  entrance: 

The  second  unfavorable  condition  is  the  presence  of  sweat  in 
the  clothing  and  .consequent  evaporation  in  full  force  when  work 
has  stopped  and  the  rapid  production  of  heat  no  longer  necessi- 
tates such  rapid  heat  dissipation.  As  soon  as  the  skin  begins  to 
grow  cold  the  vasomotor  center  takes  vigorous  measures  to  pre- 
vent too  great  loss  of  heat;  the  vessels  in  the  skin  are  strongly 
constricted  while  the  inner  parts  of  the  body  are  still  above  normal 
temperature  and  the  heart  action  has  not  yet  come  back  to  normal. 
The  result  is  a  rise  of  arterial  pressure  above  the  normal,  sending 
blood  to  the  inflamed  parts  in  too  great  quantities  and  under  too 
great  pressure  where  shortly  before  the  opposite  condition  pre- 
vailed, thus  adding  to  the  inflammation  and  congestion.  By  the 
time  one  begins  to  feel  chilly,  the  increased  pain  and  increased 
discharge  of  mucous  from  the  inflamed  membranes  is  often  plainly 
noticeable. 

BATHING  AFTER  EXERCISE. — Bathing  after  the  exercise  is  a 
hygienic  measure  that  should  always  be  considered  a  part  of  the 
proceeding ;  it  can  be  safely  omitted  only  when  the  exercise  has 
not  been  so  vigorous  to  cause  any  sweat  to  be  collected  in  the 
clothing,  or  in  the  hottest  weather  of  the  summer.  By  a  bath 
following  the  exercise  the  low  arterial  pressure  that  commonly 


174  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

follows  sudden  cessation  of  exercise  is  avoided,  since  the  bath 
stimulates  the  heart  and  helps  to  bring  down  the  temperature  of 
the  body  to  where  it  should  be ;  by  removing  the  perspiration  from 
the  skin  and  changing  to  dry  clothing,  all  excessive  constriction 
of  skin  vessels  is  prevented.  In  fact,  by  means  of  the  bath,  prop- 
erly taken,  and  followed  by  thorough  rubbing  or  massage  of  the 
skin,  unfavorable  effects  of  exercise  are  largely  avoided.  One  of 
the  chief  reasons  why  athletes  get  more  benefit  from  their  exercise 
than  laborers,  and  men  more  than  women,  is  because  athletes  al- 
most universally  use  the  bath  as  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  the 
exercise,  while  the  laborer  does  not ;  the  women  who  do  take  the 
same  hygienic  measures  as  men  receive  the  same  profit,  but  usually 
they  take  less  care  in  the  matter. 


CHAPTER  X. 

SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS. 

During  the  last  twenty  years  several  systems  of  gymnastics 
have  been  on  trial  in  schools  and  colleges,  and  of  these  the  Swedish 
and  the  German  systems  have  gradually  forged  to  the  front.  Each 
of  these  two  systems  fills  a  place,  .the  Swedish  being  most  useful 
for  correction  of  posture  and  the  German  more  popular  for  all 
around  development  and  training  of  the  body.  The  Swedish. in- 
cludes a  few  exercises  chosen  with  great  care,  while  the  German 
system  includes  an  almost  unlimited  number  of  exercises;  each 
exercise  in  Swedish  is  devised  for  a  particular  purpose,  while  this 
is  not  true  of  the  exercises  of  the  German  system.  In  the  Swedish 
gymnastics,  apparatus  is  used  sparingly  and  only  so  as  to  give 
certain  physiological  effects;  in  German  gymnastics  apparatus  is 
used  extensively  to  stimulate  interest  in  exercise.  The  Swedes 
claim  that  their  exercises  can  not  be  improved  upon,  and  therefore 
any  other  exercise  must  be  inferior ;  the  Germans  welcome  the  in- 
vention of  new  exercises,  and  believe  in  a  wide  range  of  gymnastic 
training  rather  than  a  narrow  one. 

SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS — GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

The  Swedish  system  of  gymnastics  represents  the  most  thor- 
ough attempt  ever  made  to  discover  all  of  the  bodily  conditions 
common  to  school  children  and  students  that  can  be  improved  by 
exercise,  and  to  devise  a  system  of  exercises  to  meet  these  condi- 
tions. The  following  principles  are  emphasized : 

(i)  The  main  object  of  gymnastics  is  to  improve  the  condi- 
tions of  the  vital  organs;  strength  of  muscle  is  to  be  gained  in- 
cidentally. 


176  PHYSICAL   TRAINING 

(2)  Exercise  should  not  begin  or  end  suddenly,  but  should 
increase  gradually  to  a  climax  and  then  gradually  decrease. 

(3)  Exercises  should  be  carefully  graded,  so  that  the  easier 
exercises  will  lead  up  to  and  prepare  for  the  more  difficult  ones. 

(4)  School  life  causes  not  only  a  general  lack  of  vigor,  but 
also  gives  rise  to  definite  faults  of  posture  and  development,  call- 
ing for  definite  corrective  exercises. 

(5)  Exercises  should  be  used  only  when  they  are  known  to 
produce  good  effects  on  the  body ;  never  because  they  are  pretty 
or  amusing. 

(6)  Gymnastics  should  be  conducted  by  command  rather 
than  by  having  the  teacher  lead  in  the  exercise  or  by  having  pupils 
memorize  them. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

The  first  step  in  learning  a  new  muscular  movement  is  to  get 
a  clear  idea  of  it.  It  is  plain  that  the  teacher  who  is  to  give  this 
clear  idea  to  the  pupils  must  have  a  perfectly  clear  and  accurate 
idea  of  it  himself.  There  can  be  no  true  teaching  without  this ;  to 
go  before  a  class  and  pretend  to  teach  when  one  has  no  clear  and 
vivid  concept  to  present  is  the  most  unpardonable  sin  in  all  teach- 
ing. All  attempts  in  courses  like  this  to  develop  methods  and 
principles  of  teaching  are  lost  on  people  who  do  not  know  what 
they  are  to  teach. 

The  process  of  making  an  exercise  in  gymnastics  clear  to  a 
class  may  be  called  demonstration,  using  the  word  in  the  sense  in 
which  it  is  used  in  geometry.  To  make  the  most  clear  and  vivid 
mental  picture  of  anything  it  is  necessary  to  appeal  to  the  eye; 
that  is,  the  exercise  must  be  seen  by  the  class.  It  follows  that  the 
teacher  must  not  only  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  exercise  but  he 
must  be  able  to  perform  it  accurately;  everything  depends  on  this. 
If  clothing  or  some  physical  disability  makes  it  impossible  for  the 
teacher  to  do  this,  a  pupil  who  can  take  the  exercise  will  answer, 
or  even  a  chart  showing  pictures  of  it  can  be  used. 

While  the  exercise  is  being  shown  the  essential  things  about 
it  must  be  stated,  to  prevent  the  pupils  from  emphasizing  non- 


<\\         SH  GYMNASTICS  177 

essentials:  just  as  the  pupils  need,  when  they  explain  their  prob- 
lems iu  mathematics,  to  point  to  the  work  on  the  blackboard,  so  as 
to  direct  the  attention  of  their  hearers  to  what  they  are  saying,  so 
the  teacher  needs  to  refer  directly  to  the  exercise  while  it  is  before 
their  eyes.  If  it  has  a  definite  purpose,  or  a  particular  fault  is 
common,  it  is  well  to  mention  it,  as  it  may  add  to  the  clearness  of 
the  idea  given  to  the  class.  The  exercise  usually  needs  to  be  shown 
from  different  points  of  view,  and  nothing  should  be  neglected  that 
will  make  plain  what  is  to  be  done.  The  common  language  of  con- 
versation is  to  be  used  rather  than  the  condensed  form  of  definition 
used  in  books. 

\;  the  same  time  the  teacher  must  avoid  telling  too  much. 
Clearness  demands  simplicity.  1  f  an  exercise  has  too  many  points 
about  it  to  be  rapidly  grasped  and  remembered  at  one  telling,  it 
should  he  divided  into  parts  if  possible;  if  this  is  not  feasible  it  is 
sometimes  best  to  tell  of  the  details  in  part  only  and  have  the 
pupils  try  it.  pviiu:  the  minor  details  after  the  most  important 
things  have  been  fixed  in  mind.  It  requires  some  judgment  to 
decide  how  much  to  say  and  how  to  say  it;  the  tendency  of  the 
teacher  is  in  general  to  talk  too  much,  to  fail  to  plan  well  enough 
what  to  say.  and  to  say  it  in  too  indifferent  a  tone. 

When  i^yir  \ercises  are  taught  to  pupils  individually, 

it  is  not  necessary  to  ^ive  commands,  any  more  than  to  pupils  who 
are  beini;  sent  to  the  blackboard  or  to  those  who  are  called  on  to 
recite.  Commands  are  needed  when  exercises  are  to  be  performed 
hy  classes  in  unison.  There  is  a  feeling  abroad  that  commands  are 
something  imposed  upon  pupils  in  an  objectionable  way,  ordering 
them  ahont  and  treating  them  as  menials.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a 
command  is  in  these  respects  just  like  the  other  directions  given 
hy  the  teacher  in  conducting  the  work  of  the  school.  The  com- 
mand is  simply  a  direction  of  what  to  do  coupled  with  a  signal 
telling  when  it  is  to  be  done. 

Class  work  in  gymnastics  should  be  done  in  unison  for  several 
reasons. 

i  i  ^  For  the  sake  of  appearance.  Exercise  done  out  of 
unison  pve  an  appearance  of  confusion  and  disorder  that  not  only 


178  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

looks  bad  to  spectators  but  reacts  badly  on  pupils  and  teacher. 
There  is  a  feeling  of  system  and  unity  produced  by  work  in  exact 
unison  that  is  worth  having. 

(2)  What  is  probably  more  important,  gymnastics  must  be 
taken  in  unison  so  that  the  teacher  can  observe  the  work  of  the 
class  and  give  the  assistance  needed.  When  the  exercises  are 
taken  in  exact  unison  it  is  possible  for  an  experienced  teacher  to 
see  at  once  who  is  doing  the  work  correctly,  who  is  wrong,  and 
what  is  the  fault,  but  the  least  defect  in  the  unison  will  always 
attract  the  teacher's  attention  from  the  movements  themselves, 
thus  hiding  what  should  be  seen. 

The  wording  and  speaking  of  commands  must  therefore  be 
such  as  will  secure  exact  unison  in  the  work  of  the  class. 

A  typical  command  consists  of  two  parts : 

(1)  an  explanatory  part,  which  should  give  all  necessary 
information  of  what  is  to  be  done  ; 

(2)  an  executive  part,  or  signal  for  action,  which  tells  when 
to  do  it. 

The  typical  form  of  the  explanatory  part  is  the"  imperative 
form  of  sentence,  which  begins  with  the  verb ;  as,  Raise  arms  for- 
ward; swing  bells  sidewise;  place  right  foot  backward;  march 
forward;  face  about.  The  wording  is  as  if  the  command  was 
addressed  to  one  individual;  as,  bend  head  backward  (not  heads) ; 
swing  right  foot  sidewise  (not  feet);  tzvist  trunk  to  right  (not 
trunks) . 

The  executive  part  of  the  command  is  formed  in  either  of 
two  ways : 

(1)  the  verb  is  taken  from  its  place  at  the  beginning  of  the 
explanatory  part  and  used  as  the  signal  for  action ;  as,  arms  for- 
ward,— raise!    bells   sidewise, — swing!    right   foot    backward, — 
place!  forward, — march!  etc.,  or 

(2)  the  explanatory  part  is  left  in  its  regular  form,  with  the 
verb  leading,  and  the  numbers,  one,  two,  etc.,  are  used  as  the  exec- 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  179 

utive.  As,  raise  arms  sidewise, — one  I  lower  them  to  sides, — two! 
swing  bells  forward, — one!  swing  them  downward, — two!  face 
about  in  two  counts, — one!  two! 

There  are  some  familiar  exceptions  to  these  rules  for  word- 
ing commands ;  as,  hips, — firm!  right  shoulder, — arms!  Such  ex- 
ceptions work  no  inconvenience  in  case  of  exercises  that  everyone 
knows,  and  especially  in  systems  where  there  are  but  few  com- 
mands in  all ;  but  in  school  gymnastics,  where  exercises  are  many, 
it  is  a  big  advantage,  both  to  teachers  and  pupils,  to  have  com- 
mands worded  according  to  some  uniform  plan.  The  guiding 
principle  must  in  every  case  be  the  need  of  clearness ;  the  com- 
mand must  leave  no  doubt  whatever  as  to  what  is  to  be  done,  h'ow 
it  is  to  be  done,  and  when  it  is  to  be  done. 

The  speaking  of  commands  is  just  as  important  as  their  word- 
ing ;  the  popular  feeling  against  commands  has  arisen  largely  be- 
cause some  pompous  persons  speak  them  in  such  a  domineering 
manner.  The  explanatory  part  of  the  command  should  be  spoken 
plainly,  so  that  all  in  the  class  can  hear,  at  about  the  speed  of  com- 
mon conversation,  and  should  close  with  a  falling  inflection.  The 
falling  inflection  is  an  aid  to  clearness,  because  it  indicates  that  the 
explanatory  part  of  the  command  is  completed ;  as,  Hips  firm  and 
right  foot  forward!\ 

Following  the  explanatory  part  should  come  a  pause,  long 
enough  for  the  pupils  to  think  over  and  fully  comprehend  all  that 
has  been  said.  Few  beginning  teachers  appreciate  the  importance 
of  this  or  realize  how  long  it  requires.  Failure  to  give  a  sufficient 
pause  results  in  two  serious  faults  in  the  class  work  for  which  of 
course  the  pupils  are  not  responsible : 

1 i )  a  part  of  the  class  is  not  ready  to  act  when  the  execu- 
tive part  is  given,  and  consequently  the  work  is  not  in  unison. 

(2)  slow  pupils  get  in  the  habit  of  watching  pupils  in  front 
of  them,  imitating  their  movements,  and  paying  no  attention  to 
commands.     The  length  of  pause  that  is  necessary  varies  both 
with  the  complexity  of  the  exercise  and  with  the  quickness  with 
which  it  should  be  done.    Slight  lack  of  unison  is  not  conspicuous 


i8o  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

and  hence  not  troublesome  in  slow  exercises,  such  as  heel  raising, 
leg  raising,  and  some  other  movements,  while  in  quick  movements 
like  foot  placing,  arm  flinging,  etc.,  it  is  very  important  that  all  the 
pupils  start  the  exercise  at  the  same  instant ;  a  long  pause  is  there- 
fore much  more  necessary  in  the  latter. 

The  executive  word  should  be  spoken  in  a  vigorous  and  ani- 
mated tone,  not  necessarily  louder  than  the  preceding  part,  and 
should  end  with  a  slightly  rising  inflection.  This  rising  inflection 
helps  the  voice  to  be  heard  plainly  and  gives  a  pleasant  and  encour- 
aging effect,  while  the  mental  effect  of  the  falling  inflection  in 
this  case  is  not  good.  Any  teacher  who  habitually  finishes  com- 
mands with  the  falling  inflection  will  get  the  reputation  of  being 
cross  and  arbitrary ;  in  fact,  it  sounds  that  way  to  one  who  hears 
it.  Arms  sideward,  \ — Raise!/ 

The  tone  of  voice  in  which  commands  are  spoken  is  important. 
It  is  not  easy  to  explain  distinctions  here,  but  it  is  easy  to  notice 
them ;  one  who  speaks  as  if  interested,  enthusiastic,  and  confident, 
will  impress  the  pupils  as  having  those  qualities ;  an  indifferent, 
monotonous,  or  cross  tone  affects  the  class  seriously.  Teachers 
are  apt  to  drop  to  an  indifferent  tone  on  the  command  for  return- 
ing from  an  exercise,  as  they  think  of  the. next  exercise  and  begin 
to  plan  it  before  they  finish  the  preceding  one ;  it  is  as  important  to 
return  in  good  form  as  to  take  the  exercise  in  good  form.  An  in- 
different tone  should  be  used  only  in  the  commands  for  resting  and 
dismissal ;  it  is  of  course  absurd  to  command,  "Class, — Rest!"  with 
the  same  vim  and  enthusiasm  that  is  used  commanding  a  jump 
or  run. 

It  rarely  happens  that  one  is  able  to  perform  a  wholly  new 
exercise  accurately  the  first  time,  no  matter  how  clear  a  demon- 
stration of  it  has  been  made.  The  process  by  which  one  learns  a 
new  exercise  is  called  coordination.  It  involves  control  of  the 
muscles  in  new  combinations  and  a  training  of  the  muscular  sense, 
— the  sense  by  which  we  get  direct  knowledge  of  the  position  of 
our  joints  and  of  the  force  with  which  our  muscles  are  contract- 
ing. We  try  to  make  the  new  movement  several  times,  and  grad- 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  l8l 

ually  gain  in  accuracy  by  recognizing  our  faults  and  correcting 
them. 

By  practicing  many  times  we  may  acquire  the  ability  of  taking 
the  exercise  correctly  without  directing  our  attention  to  it.  The 
movement  is  then  said  to  be  reflex.  The  learning  of  a  new  and 
simple  movement  is  seen  therefore  to  include  three  stages:  (a) 
getting  a  clear  mental  picture,  (b)  perfecting  the  coordination, 
and  (c)  making  it  reflex. 

Success  in  perfecting  the  coordination  depends  largely  on 
how  promptly  and  clearly  the  pupil  recognizes  his  mistakes  as  he 
tries  to  take  the  exercise.  Since  he  can  see  his  own  positions  to 
only  a  slight  extent,  he  will  learn  much  faster  if  some  one  can  tell 
or  show  him  how  far  his  attempts  are  successful  and  to  what  ex- 
tent they  are  faulty.  This  stage  of  teaching,  therefore,  requires 
of  the  teacher  two  things : 

i.  Observation  of  the  class  as  the  exercise  is  taken,  with  the 
object  of  discovering  where  the  movement  is  accurate  and  where 
it  is  inaccurate.  This  is  probably  the  most  difficult  of  all  the 
duties  of  the  teacher  of  physical  training.  Before  he  can  do  this 
successfully  he  must  not  only  have  a  very  clear  concept  of  what 
the  exercise  should  be,  and  such  a  mastery  of  the  commands  that 
he  can  give  undivided  attention  to  the  work  of  the  pupils,  but  his 
eye  must  be  trained  to  observe  exercises  and  detect  mistakes 
quickly. 

It  is  an  aid  to  the  teacher  here  to  keep  the  most  common 
faults  in  mind ;  for  this  purpose  the  faults  that  are  most  common 
are  given  in  the  text  along  with  the  definition  of  the  exercises. 

The  custom  of  leading  the  class  in  the  exercises,  which  is 
habitually  followed  by  some  teachers  of  gymnastics,  is  inevitably 
fatal  to  the  best  results  in  this  stage  of  the  teaching  because  it 
takes  the  attention  of  both  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  away  from 
wha  all  should  be  watching,  viz :  the  work  the  pupils  are  doing. 
The  mental  picture  should  be  made  so  clear  and  vivid  by  a  good 
demonstration  that  this  continuous  leading  is  unnecessary. 

Some  exercises  can  best  be  observed  from  the  front,  some 
from  the  rear,  and  some  from  the  side.  This  makes  it  necessary 


1 82  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

for  the  teacher  to  move  about  among  the  pupils  as  the  work  goes 
on.  The  common  custom  of  sitting  before  a  class  causes  teachers 
to  feel  that  they  should  always  stand  or  sit  in  front  of  a  class  to 
give  commands,  but  this  is  not  at  all  necessary.  It  is  well  to  have 
the  class  face  in  all  four  directions  during  the  lesson,  since  it  pre- 
vents pupils  from  forming  the  habit  of  imitating  those  in  front  of 
them,  and  also  places  all  near  the  teacher  a  part  of  the  time  when 
new  exercises  are  shown. 

2.     Criticism  of  the  work  of  the  pupils. 

The  object  here  is  to  give  the  pupils  the  benefit  of  what  the 
teacher  has  learned  in  observing  their  work.  The  attitude  of  the 
teacher  in  making  these  criticisms  should  be  one  of  encourage- 
ment and  enthusiastic  helpfulness.  The  word  "criticism"  does  not 
mean  fault  finding,  but  the  giving  of  a  true  estimate  of  the  degree 
of  success  the  pupils  have  reached  in  their  attempts  to  do  the  work. 
A  class  can  be  kept  wide  awake  and  interested  by  keeping  them 
informed  all  of  the  time  of  the  progress  they  are  making.  Faults 
of  course  must  be  noticed,  but  as  the  work  improves  the  class 
should  be  told  of  it  and  especially  good  work  commended. 

Criticism  of  faults  in  an  exercise  should  be  specific,  stating 
exactly  what  is  the  matter  in  the  clearest  possible  way.  An  ob- 
jective showing  of  the  fault  in  contrast  with  the  right  way  of 
doing  it  is  often  the  clearest  and  the  quickest  way. 

The  first  faults  to  be  criticised  are  naturally  those  that  are 
general;  they  should  be  mentioned  in  a  general  remark  to  the 
whole  class.  Individual  mistakes  require  help  for  each  pupil, 
which  can  usually  be  given  by  word  but  sometimes  best  by  direct 
assistance  with  the  hand.  The  latter  is  especially  true  of  posture 
of  the  trunk.  As  a  general  principle  it  is  well  to  give  more  in- 
dividual criticisms  to  older  pupils  and  more  general  criticisms  to 
younger  children,  since  children  sometimes  misinterpret  the  per- 
sonal attention. 

Each  position  should  be  observed  and  criticised  quickly  while 
the  pupils  are  holding  it ;  then  return  to  fundamental  position  and 
repeat,  observing  and  criticising  again ;  this  is  done  enough  times 
to  secure  accurate  performance. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  183 

SIMPLE  GYMNASTIC  POSITIONS. 

i.     FUNDAMENTAL  POSITION.     (Pos.)    Fig.  74. 

Command,  In  position, — Stand! 

Heels  together,  or  nearly  so,  toes  turned  out  making  an  angle 
of  from  30  to  60  degrees ;  entire  body  .erect,  inclined  slightly  for- 
ward from  ankles ;  knees  extended,  hips  drawn  back,  chest  high, 
head  erect,  chin  in ;  arms  at  the  sides,  wrists  and  fingers  extended 
but  not  stiff,  palms  resting  against  the  sides  of  the  thighs  and  held 
well  back. 

Return  command,  In  place, — Rest!  or  Class, — Rest! 

Move  right  foot  one  foot  length  to  the  rear  and  assume  an 
easy  posture  without  leaving  floor  position. 

Purpose  :  To  cultivate  normal  posture  and  to  serve  as  a  start- 
ing position  for  other  exercises. 

As  a  posture  exercise,  fundamental  standing  position  aims  to 
do  three  things : 

(a)  To  strengthen  muscles  used  in  holding  good  posture  ; 

(b)  To  stretch  some  tissues  and  contract  others,  so  as  to 
correct  the  effects  of  bad  postures  ; 

(c)  To  train  the  muscular  sense  and  the  proper  nerve  cen- 
ters so  that  correct  posture  will  be  taken  reflexly. 

To  criticise  fundamental  position  effectively  it  must  be  viewed 
from  two  directions :  From  front  or  rear  and  from  the  side,  the 
latter  being  more  important.  Viewed  from  front  or  rear  there 
should  be  bilateral  symmetry :  weight  equally  divided  between  the 
feet,  spinal  column  straight  and  vertical,  and  hips  and  shoulders 
at  the  same  height  on  each  side  and  equally  distant  from  the  spine 
on  each  side.  Viewed  from  the  side,  the  general  line  of  the  body 
should  be  straight  from  head  to  heel  with  inclination  forward  at 
such  an  angle  as  will  bring  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  body  over 
the  balls  of  the  feet ;  the  spinal  column  should  exhibit  the  three 
normal  curves :  cervical,  dorsal,  and  lumbar.  The  poise  is  tested 
by  rising  on  the  toes ;  if  one  has  to  sway  forward  or  back  before 
rising,  the  weight  was  not  over  the  balls  of  the  feet. 


184 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


FAULTS  :    Seen  from  the  side  :    (See  Fig.  75.) 

(a)  Weight  poised  too  far  back, 

(b)  Hips  and  abdomen  too  far  forward, 

(c)  Head  too  far  forward, 

(d)  Arms  and  hands  too  far  forward. 
Seen  from  the  front  or  rear : 

(a)  Weight  not  evenly  divided, 

(b)  Uneven  hips  or  shoulders, 

(c)  Head  held  to  one  side. 


FIG.  74.    Fundamental 
standing  position. 


FIG.  75.     Faulty  standing  position. 

The  combined  effect  of  the  first  group  of  faults  is  to  flatten 
the  chest  and  lessen  the  range  of  the  breathing  movements  ;  at  the 
same  time  the  organs  in  the  body  cavity  are  crowded  and  their 
action  hindered.  The  combined  effects  of  the  second  group  is  to 
cause  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine,  which  lessens  its  supporting 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  185 

power  and  in  severe  cases  causes  pressure  upon  the  spinal  nerves 
where  they  pass  out  from  the  spinal  canal. 

2.    FUNDAMENTAL  SITTING  POSITION.     (Sit.)     Fig.  76. 

Command,  In  position  on  the  bench  (or  chair  or  school  seat), 
— Sit! 

Pupils  promptly  seat  themselves  and  at  once  assume  erect 
position  of  the  trunk  as  described  for  fundamental  standing 
position. 


FIG.  76.     Fundamental  sitting  po- 
sition. 

At  the  command,  In  place, — Rest!  an  easy  posture  is  assumed. 
Return  command.  In  position, — Stand! 

Purpose :  To  furnish  a  starting  position  for  certain  exercises 
that  can  be  taken  from  it  to  a  better  advantage  than  from  stand- 
ing position. 

Faults :  The  most  common  fault  in  this  position  is  letting 
the  pelvis  tip  back,  taking  out  all  the  normal  lumbar  curve  of  the 
spine  and  giving  what  is  called  the  "rocking  chair"  position.  Let- 
ting head  fall  forward  is  also  a  common  fault. 


1 86  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

NOTES:  The  fundamental  standing  and  sitting  positions  are 
used  in  two  different  ways : 

1 i )  As    corrective  .  exercises.      Here    the    purpose    is    to 
strengthen  the  muscles  needed  to  hold  erect  posture  and  to  stretch 
such  ligaments,  muscles,  and  other  tissues  as  hinder  the  taking  of 
erect  posture.     For  this  purpose  the  position  must  be  taken  vig- 
orously and  repeated  many  times  with  resting  positions  between. 
Such  exercises  are  needed  in  the  case  of  those  pupils  who  have 
faults  of  posture  so  marked  and  so  firmly  rooted  that  they  cannot 
take  an  erect  position  easily.     Their  appropriate  place  is  in  the 
corrective  room  with  individual  pupils  and  in  a  limited  amount  of 
home  work  for  such  pupils. 

(2)  As  ideal  positions  to  be  practiced  with  the  object  of 
making  them  habitual.     Here  the  fundamental  position  is  taken 
with  less  force  but  held  for  a  much  longer  time,  which  is  gradually 
increased  until  position  can  be  maintained  through  the  entire  class 
period. 

Many  teachers  have  used  the  first  method  with  all  classes,  but 
there  is  a  marked  tendency  at  present  to  favor  the  second  and  to 
treat  special  cases  needing  corrective  exercises  out  of  class.  Miss 
Bancroft  says  that  she  is  able  to  get  much  better  results  in  this 
way,  as  shown  by  tests  of  250,000  children  in  Brooklyn.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  fatigue  of  taking  the  rigidly  erect  posture,  and 
that  the  frequent  taking  of  resting  positions  which  are  not  criti- 
cised by  the  teacher  also  gives  bad  habits  of  standing  and  sitting. 
Instead  of  commanding  position  and  rest  at  carefully  planned  in- 
tervals, the  work  of  the  teacher,  in  the  new  method  of  training, 
consists  in  watching  the  pupils  individually,  reminding  those  who 
get  out  of  good  position,  and  urging  and  encouraging  them  to 
maintain  it. 

3.     HANDS  ON  HIPS,    (Hf.)    Fig.  77. 

Command,  Hips, — Firm! 

The  hands  are  placed  firmly  against  the  waist,  just  above  the 
hips,  palms  on  the  crest  of  the  hip  bone,  fingers  forward ;  elbows 
drawn  slightly  backward ;  wrists  straight  or  lower  than  the  line 
of  the  hand  or  arm. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS 


I87 


Return  command.    Arms, — Down! 

Purpose:  (a)  To  aid  in  holding  the  trunk  firm;  (b)  to  serve 
as  a  convenient  position  for  the  hands  in  exercises  in  which  it  is 
not  advantageous  to  leave  them  hanging  freely. 

Faults:    (a)  Elbows  too  far  forward;  (b)  wrists  too  high. 


FIG.    77- 
hips. 


Hands    on 


FIC-.  78.  Stride  side- 
ward with  hands  on 
neck. 


4.  HANDS  ON  NECK.     (Nf.)     Fig.  78  and  Fig.  91. 
Command,  Neck, — Firm! 

Start  as  in  flinging  arms  sideward,  then  flex  elbows  and  bring 
finger  tips  together  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  with  head  erect  and 
elbows  well  back. 

Return  command,  Arms, — Down! 

Purpose:  (a)  To  aid  in  chest  expansion;  (b)  to  cultivate 
good  posture;  (c)  to  increase  the  difficulty  of  other  exercises. 

Faults:  (a)  Arms  brought  up  toward  the  front;  (b)  head 
moved  forward ;  (c)  elbows  not  held  well  back. 

5.  ARMS  BEND.     (A  bd.)    Figs.  79  and  83. 
Command,  Arms, — Bend!  or  Shoulders, — Firm! 

The  forearms  are  raised  sideward,  flexing  the  elbows,  which 
remain  close  to  the  sides  as  possible;  the  hands  are  closed, 
raised  over  the  shoulders  and  carried  as  far  to  the  rear  as  possible. 


1 88  PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 

Return  command,  Arms, — Down!  or  Arms  doivnward, — 
Stretch! 

In  the  latter  case  the  elbows  are  raised  slightly  and  then  thrust 
downward  with  force. 


FIG.    80.      Arms    for- 
ward. 


FTG.  79.     Arms  bend,  or  shoulders 
firm. 

Purpose:  (a)  To  aid  in  chest  expansion;  (b)  to  serve  as  a 
starting  point  for  arm  stretchings;  (c)  to  vary  the  difficulty  of 
other  exercises.  This  exercise  aids  in  chest  expansion  only  when 
the  elbows  are  held  down  and  the  hands  far  to  the  rear  at  the 
same  time. 

Faults:  (a)  Elbows  not  held  down  with  enough  force;  (&) 
hands  not  held  back  with  enough  force  ;  (c)  back  hollowed. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  189 

6.  ARMS  FORWARD.    (Af )    Fig.  80. 
Command,  Arms  forward, — Raise! 

Arms  raised  slowly  forward  to  horizontal  position,  parallel, 
elbows  and  wrists  extended,  palms  toward  each  other. 

Return  command,  Arms, — Sink! 

Also  taken  quickly  at  the  command,  Arms  forward, — Fling! 
and  also  at  the  command,  Arms  forward, — Stretch!  The  latter 
command  is  given  while  pupils  have  the  arms  bent,  as  in  exer- 
cise 5. 

Purpose:  (a)  Cultivation  of  posture;  (b)  to  vary  the  diffi- 
culty of  other  exercises. 

Faults:  (a)  Leaning  back  at  the  waist;  (&)  arms  too  high; 
(c)  shoulders  forward. 

7.  ARMS  SIDEWARD.     (As)     Fig.  81. 
Command,  Arms  sideward, — Raise! 

The  arms  are  raised  slowly  sideward  until  they  are  hori- 
zontal, with  elbows  and  wrists  extended,  palms  turned  downward, 
and  arms  held  well  back. 

Return  command,  Arms, — Sink! 

The  commands  Fling  and  Stretch  are  used  in  this  exercise  as 
in  the  preceding  one,  and  with  the  same  meaning,  the  latter  com- 
mand being  given  when  the  arms  are  bent. 

Purpose:  (a)  Cultivation  of  posture;  (b)  chest  expansion; 
(c)  to  vary  the  difficulty  of  other  exercises.  This  exercise  aids  in 
chest  expansion  if  the  arms  are  held  well  back,  but  not  otherwise. 

Faults:  (a)  Arms  are  not  at  the  correct  height;  (&)  arms 
not  held  well  back;  (c)  class  facing  in  such  a  way  that  collisions 
of  arms  occur  between  pupils. 

8.  ARMS  UPWARD.     (A  u)     Fig.  82. 
Command,  Arms  forward  upward, — Raise! 

Beginning  as  in  raising  arms  forward,  the  movement  is  com- 
tinued  up  to  a  vertical  position,  with  arms  extended  and  palms 
toward  each  other. 

Return  command,  Arms  forward  downward, — Sink! 


190 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


The  arms  may  also  be  raised  sideward  upward ;  in  this  case 
the  palms  are  turned  upward  as  the  arms  pass  the  horizontal 
position. 


FIG.  Si. 
ward. 


Arms   side- 


FIG.    82. 
ward. 


Arms    up- 


FIG.  83.  *Stride  for- 
ward and  shoulders 
firm. 


Purpose:  (a)  Cultivation  of  posture;  (b)  chest  expansion; 
(c)  to  vary  the  difficulty  of  other  exercises. 

Faults:  (a)  Back  hollowed;  (b)  head  forward;  (c)  elbows 
not  extended;  (d)  palms  forward. 

The  commands  Fling  and  Stretch  are  used  here  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding. 

9.     STRIDE  SIDEWARD,     (std  s)     Fig.  78. 

Command,  Right  (or  1)  foot  sideward, — Place! 

The  foot  is  lifted,  moved  two  foot  lengths  toward  the  side, 
and  placed  on  the  floor,  with  the  line  of  the  foot  at  the  same  angle 
as  before,  and  the  weight  equally  divided  between  the  two  feet. 

Return  command,  Foot, — Replace! 


*  Do  not  infer  from  the  fact  that  most  of  the  pictures  show  two  posi- 
tions that  the  positions  shown  together  must  always  be  given  together. 
They  are  combined  here  for  economy  of  space,  not  to  indicate  a  preference 
of  combination. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  19 1 

This  position  is  sometimes  taken,  in  more  advanced  work,  in 
two  counts,  moving  the  left  foot  on  the  first  count  and  the  right 
in  the  second  count,  each  moving  one  foot  length.  The  command 
is  Feet  sideward, — Place!  Sometimes  with  children  both  feet  are 
moved  at  the  same  time  at  the  command,  Feet  apart , — Jump! 

Purpose :    To  increase  the  stability  of  the  standing  position. 

Faults:  (a)  Feet  not  far  enough  apart;  (b)  weight  not 
equally  divided;  (c)  one  knee  bent;  (d)  feet  not  at  proper  angle. 

10.  STRIDE  FORWARD,     (std  f )     Fig.  83. 
Command,  Right  (or  1)  foot  forward, — Place! 

The  foot  is  lifted,  moved  two  foot  lengths  to  the  front,  and 
placed  on  the  floor  with  the  line  of  the  foot  at  the  same  angle  as 
before  and  the  weight  equally  divided  between  the  two  feet. 

Return  command,  Foot, — Replace! 

The  foot  may  also  be  placed  backward  in  a  similar  manner 
and  at  a  similar  command. 

Purpose:  To  vary  the  standing  position  and  to  increase  its 
stability. 

Faults:  (a)  Feet  too  close  together;  (b)  weight  not  far 
enough  forward;  (c)  toes  not  turned  out  at  proper  angle. 

11.  HEEL  RAISING.    (H  rse)    Fig.  84. 
Command,  Heels, — Raise! 

Rise  high  on  tiptoes. 

Return  command,  Heels, — Sink! 

Purpose:  (a)  To  narrow  the  base  of  support,  so  as  to  give 
more  difficulty  in  balancing;  (b)  to  serve  as  a  warming  up  exer- 
cise when  taken  rapidly  in  series;  (c)  to  test  the  poise  in  funda- 
mental standing  position. 

Faults:    (a)  Heels  turn  out;  (b)  hips  thrown  forward. 

12.  KNEE  BENDING.    (Kbd)    Fig.  85. 
Command,  Knees, — Bend! 

The  knees  are  slowly  flexed  until  there  is  a  right  angle  at  the 
knee ;  the  knees  separate  as  they  bend,  moving  diagonally  forward 


192 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


in  the  direction  of  the  lines  of  the  feet ;  the  heels  are  lifted  a  little 
during  the  movement,  because  of  the  limited  movement  possible 
in  the  ankle  joints. 

Return  command,  Knees, — Stretch! 

Purpose :    To  cultivate  posture  and  balance. 

.Faults:     (a)  Trunk  tipped  forward;   (b)  knees  held  close 
together. 


FIG.  85.  Knee  bending, 
with  hands  on  hips. 


FIG.  84.     Heel  raising 
with  hands  on  hips. 

13.    LEG  RAISING.     (L  rse)    Fig.  86. 

Command,  Right  (left)  leg  sideward, — Raise! 

The  foot  is  lifted  and  moved  two  foot  lengths  to  the  side, 
with  knee  and  ankle  extended  and  the  trunk  erect.  The  leg  is  also 
raised  in  a  similar  way  forward,  backward,  and  outward,  at  similar 
commands. 

Purpose :    To  cultivate  posture  and  balance. 

Faults:     (a)  Trunk  not  held  erect;  (b)  ankle  not  extended. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS 


193 


14.    KNEE  RAISING.     (K  rse)     Fig.  87. 

Command,  Right  (left)  knee  upward, — Raise! 

The  knee  is  raised  to  the  level  of  the  hip,  hip  and  knee  joints 
being  flexed  to  a  right  angle ;  trunk  erect ;  ankle  of  free  foot 
extended. 

Return  command,  Knee  downward, — Stretch! 

Purpose :    To  cultivate  posture  and  balance. 

Faults:  (a)  Trunk  not  held  erect;  (b)  knee  not  as  high  as 
hip;  (c)  free  foot  not  extended  or  too  far  back. 


FIG.  86.     Leg  raising.         FIG.  87.  Knee  raising. 


Head  back- 


15.     HEAD  BACKWARD.    (Hb)    Fig.  88. 
Command,  Head  Backward, — Bend! 

The  head  is  held  erect  and  moved  backward  as  far  as  possible, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  deep  breath  is  taken. 
Return  command,  Head, — Raise! 

Purpose :  To  correct  round  shoulders  and  to  raise  the  chest. 
"Round  shoulders"  is  a  defect  of  posture  that  seriously  affects  the 
health,  because  it  flattens  the  chest  and  lessens  the  range  of  the 
breathing  movements.  Habitual  flattening  of  the  chest  leaves 
many  air  cells  without  fresh  air,  a  condition  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  disease  germs.  (See  Fig.  69.) 


194 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


Faults:  (a)  Raising  the  chin  too  high;  (£>)  bending  the 
lower  part  of  the  spine,  thus  sacrificing  the  fundamental  position. 
This  may  be  avoided  by  having  the  beginners  take  the  exercise  at 
first  while  sitting  in.  the  school  seat,  where  the  back  of  the  seat 
prevents  the  fault.  See  Fig.  107.  (c)  Failure  to  take  a  deep  breath 
as  the  head  is  moved  backward. 


FIG.  89.     Chest  arching. 

16.     CHEST  ARCHING.     (Ch  arch)     Fig.  89. 

Command,  Chest  Arching, — One!    Two! 

Like  the  preceding  but  more  extended,  the  backward  bend  be- 
ginning in  the  neck  and  eextending  down  into  the  region  of  the 
chest.  A  deep  breath,  as  before. 

Purpose :    Same  as  the  preceding. 

Faults:  (a)  The  bend  extends  too  low,  so  as  to  hollow  the 
back. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS 


195 


17.     TRUNK  FORWARD.     (Tr  f)    Fig.  90. 

Taken  only  from  stride  position  sideward. 

Command,  Trunk  forward, — Incline! 

The  trunk  is  inclined  forward,  the  movement  taking  place  in 
the  hip  joints  only,  as  far  as  the  hips  can  be  flexed ;  normal  curves 
of  spine  are  maintained,  and  head,  shoulders,  and  trunk  held  in 
the  same  relative  positions  as  in  fundamental  position. 


FTC.  90.  Trunk  for- 
ward with  hands  on 
hips. 


Fie.  QI.  Trunk  down- 
ward with  hands  on 
neck. 


18.     TRUNK  DOWNWARD.    (Tr  d)     Fig.  91. 

Command,  Trunk  downward, — Bend! 

Return  command,  Trunk  upward— Stretch,  or  Trunk, — 
Raise. 

Purpose :  To  cultivate  the  correct  posture  of  the  spine  and 
develop  and  train  the  muscles  of  the  back,'  which  are  the  ones 
chiefly  involved. 

Faults :  Hips  not  completely  flexed ;  normal  posture  of  the 
spine  lost. 

Starting  the  movement  from  stride  sideward  enables  one  to 
bend  farther  than  from  fundamental  position. 

Given  while  the  pupils  have  trunk  forward ;  may  also  be  given 
while  the  pupils  are  in  stride  sideward  with  trunk  erect.  The 


196 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


trunk  is  bent  further  downward  by  relaxing  the  muscles  in  the 
small  of  the  back.  The  relative  positions  of  the  head,  shoulders, 
and  chest  are  kept  as  in  fundamental  position. 

Return  command,    Trunk    upward, — Stretch!    or    Trunk, — 
Raise! 
•        Purpose :    Same  as  for  trunk  forward. 

Faults :    Failure  to  maintain  the  normal  position  of  the  head 
and  shoulders. 


FIG.  92.    Trunk  side- 
ward. 


FIG.  93.  Trunk  twist- 
ing with  hands  on 
hips. 


FIG.  94.     Fallout  for- 
ward. 


19.    TRUNK  SIDEWARD.    Tr  s)     Fig.  92. 

Command,  Trunk  to  right  (or  1), — Bend! 

The  trunk  bends  directly  to  the  side,  as  far  as  possible,  with 
the  relative  positions  of  the  head  and  shoulders  unchanged. 

Return  command,  Trunk  upward, — Stretch,  or  Trunk, — 
Raise ! 

Purpose:  (a)  To  cultivate  flexibility  of  the  spine;  (b)  to 
strengthen  the  muscles  used  in  maintaining  the  normal  position 
of  the  spine;  (c)  to  stimulate  the  internal  organs  by  variations  of 
pressure. 

Faults:  (a)  Trunk  twisted;  (b)  head  not  in  normal  posi- 
tion; (c)  one  knee  partly  flexed ;  (d)  leaning  backward. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  IQ7' 

20.  TRUNK  TWIST.     (Tr  tw)     Fig.  93. 
Command,  Trunk  to  right  (or  1), — Twist! 

Trunk  twisting  on- vertical  axis,  not  twisting  the  head  or  hips. 

Return  command,  Trunk  forward, — Twist! 

Purpose :    Same  as  for  side  bend. 

Faults :    Twisting  legs  and  hips,  and  twisting  head. 

21.  FALLOUT  FORWARD,     (fal  f)     Fig.  94. 
Command,  Right  (or  1)  forward, — Fallout! 

The  foot  is  lifted  and  placed  forward  three  foot  lengths,  toes 
turned  out  at  the  same  angle  as  in  fundamental  position,  heels  on 
the  floor;  forward  knee  bent  until  it  is  vertically  over  the  toe; 
trunk  and  rear  limb  in  straight  line  from  head  to  heel ;  face  and 
shoulders  squarely  to  the  front.  The  body  should  remain  straight 
and  fall  forward  as  the  foot  is  lifted. 

Return  command,  Foot, — Replace! 

In  returning  to  position  the  body  remains  straight  as  before, 
and  is  brought  to  the  vertical  position  by  a  spring  made  by  sud- 
denly extending  the  ankle  and  knee. 

22.  FALLOUT  SIDEWARD,     (fal  s)     Fig.  95. 

This  fallout  is  taken  like  the  other  except  that  the  foot  is 
moved  sideward  and  the  body  is  inclined  sideward  in  the  same 
direction,  while  the  face  and  shoulders  remain  turned  to  the  front. 

23.  FALLOUT  OUTWARD,     (fal  o)     Fig.  96. 

This  fallout  is  defined  like  the  others  except  as  to  the  direc- 
tion ;  the  foot  is  placed  diagonally,  midway  between  forward  and 
sideward.  Face  and  shoulders  are  turned  to  the  front, — not  in 
the  direction  of  the  foot. 

Purpose :  (a)  To  cultivate  the  muscular  sense  and  the  ability 
to  coordinate  good  posture ;  this  is  accomplished  by  the  practice  it 
.gives  in  holding  the  trunk  in  its  correct  form  while  it  is  out  of 
vertical  position;  (b)  to  serve  as  a  starting  point  for  certain  exer- 
cises; (c)  to  serve  as  warming  up  exercises  when  taken  rapidly 
in  series. 


I98 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


Faults:  In  criticising  fallout  positions  the  teacher  should 
observe  them  from  all  directions  and  should  keep  in  mind  all  of 
the  points  specified  in  the  definitions,  as  all  of  these  points  are  apt 
to  be  wrong,  and  all  are  important.  In  the  outward  fallout,  which 
is  much  the  most  difficult  of  the  three  to  take,  there  is  a  special 


FIG.  95.     Fallout  sideward. 


FIG.  96.    Fallout  outward. 


tendency  to  turn  the  face  and  shoulders  toward  the  foot,  instead 
of  keeping  toward  the  front,  thus  making  it  merely  a  forward 
fallout  with  a  turn  of  45  degrees. 

24.    LEANING  POSITION.     (In)     Fig.  97. 

Command,  In  leaning  position  with  hands  on  desk, — One! 
T^vo ! 

The  command  is  given  while  the  pupils  are  standing  between 
the  desks  and  the  movement  is  executed  in  two  parts :  at  the  com- 
mand One!  the  hands  are  placed  on  the  desks,  and  at  the  command 
Two !  the  feet  are  placed  backward,  bringing  the  body  to  the  posi- 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  199 

tion  shown  in  Figure  97,  with  the  weight  resting  on  the  arms  and 
the  body  straight  from  head  to  heels. 

Return  command,  In  position, — Stand!  The  feet  are  placed 
forward  and  the  hands  are  immediately  removed  from  the  desks. 
The  return  may  be  commanded  and  executed  in  two  parts  if  the 
teacher  prefers. 

Purpose:  To  exercise  the  abdominal  muscles  and  to  culti- 
vate posture. 

Faults :    Body  not  kept  straight. 


FIG.  97.     Leaning  position,     with     arms  bent. 

25.  HANGING  POSITION,    (hg)    Fig.  98. 
Command,  Hands  over  head, — Grasp!   Feet, — Raise! 
With  the  hands  grasping  some  bar,  ladder,  or  other  support 

overhead,  the  feet  are  raised  from  the  floor  so  that  the  weight  is 
borne  by  the  arms.  The  pupils  may,  in  some  cases,  jump  and 
catch  the  bar ;  sometimes  they  may  climb  up  the  wall  ladder ;  and 
sometimes  they  stand  on  a  bench  and  this  is  removed  when  the 
feet  are  raised ;  then  the  feet  can  hang  freely. 

Return  command,  In  position, — Stand! 

Purpose:  (a)  To  aid  in  chest  expansion;  (b)  to  serve  as  a 
starting  point  for  other  exercises,  especially  abdominal  exercises. 

26.  LEANING  HANG  POSITION.  (  In  hg)     Fig.  99. 
Command,  Backward, — Lean! 

Given  while  class  stand  close  to  a  wall  ladder  or  other  object 
of  support,  with  hands  grasping  bar  and  elbows  completely  flexed. 


200 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


When  the  class  is  close  to  the  wall  ladder  and  facing  it  the  com- 
mand may  be,  Hands  on  round  at  height  of  eyes, — Place!  Feet 
on  lower  round, — Place!  Arms, — Stretch! 

At  the  command  Stretch  the  arms  are  extended  and  the  body 
leans  backward  as  far  as  the  arms  will  permit ;  body  remains 
straight  as  in  fundamental  position. 


FIG    98.     Hanging  position. 


FiG.  99.     Leaning  hang. 


Return  command,  In  position, — Stand! 

Purpose:     (a)   To  exercise  back  muscles;  (b)  to  cultivate 
posture. 

Faults :    Body  not  held  straight. 

27.     INCLINE:  BACKWARD,    (inc  b)    Fig.  100  and  Fig.  101. 
Command,  Backward, — Incline! 

Given  while  pupils  are  in  stride  forward,  sitting  position  with 
foot  support,  or  in  half  kneeling  or  kneeling  position.     When 


SWEDISH   GYMNASTICS  2OI 

taken  from  sitting,  half  kneeling,  or  kneeling  position  the  trunk 
inclines  slowly  backward,  all  the  normal  curves  of  the  spine  re- 
maining unchanged.  When  taken  from  the  stride  position  the 
rear  knee  is  bent  and  the  entire  body  leans  backward,  with  body 
straight  from  head  to  the  forward  foot. 
Return  command,  Trunk, — Raise! 


FIG.  IOT.     Incline  backward  while 
sitting. 


Fie.  100.    Incline  backward. 

Purpose:  (a)  To  cultivate  normal  posture;  (b)  to  develop 
the  abdominal  muscles. 

Faults:  (a)  Head  drooped  forward ;  (b)  back  hollowed ;  (c) 
trying  to  incline  too  far,  causing  faulty  position  and  strain.  When 
taken  from  sitting  position,  the  feet  must  be  supported  to  prevent 
falling  backward. 


202  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

A  FEW  GYMASTIC  MOVEMENTS. 

1.  ARM  CIRCUMDUCTION.     (A  cmd). 
Command,  Arm  circumduction, — One!  Two! 

At  the  command,  One!  the  arms  are  raised  forward  upward 
as  in  Figure  82  on  page  190 ;  at  the  command,  Two!  they  sink  side- 
ward, downward,  turning  palms  down  as  the  arms  pass  the  hori- 
zontal. 

Purpose :    Chest  expansion. 

2.  ARM  PARTING.    (Apt). 
Command,  Arm  parting, — One!   Two! 

This  command  is  given  only  when  the  arms  have  been  raised 
forward  or  upward ;  at  the  command,  One !  they  are  quickly  sepa- 
rated to  the  position  of  arms  sideward;  at  the  command,  Two! 
they  return  to  the  starting  position. 

3.  ARM  ROTATION.     (A  ro). 
Command,  Arm  rotation, — One!   Two! 

This  command  is  given  when  the  arms  are  sideward;  at  the 
command,  One !  the  palms  are  quickly  turned  upward ;  at  the  com- 
mand Two!  they  return. 

4.  ARM- STRETCHINGS.     (A  str). 

Command,  Arm  stretching  sideward, — One!  Two!  At  the 
command,  One!  the  arms  are  bent,  as  in  Figure  79  on  page  188;  at 
the  command,  Two !  they  are  quickly  extended  sideward,  finishing 
as  in  Figure  81  on  page  190.  The  return  movement  is  made  at  the 
command  Arm  stretching  downward,— One!  Two!  This  is  exe- 
cuted in  a  similar  manner,  finishing  in  fundamental  position. 

Arm  stretchings  are  also  taken  forward  and  upward. 

When  pupils  have  become  accustomed  to  the  movements  we 
may  command  Arms  sideward, — Stretch!  from  fundamental  posi- 
tion, and  the  two  counts  are  executed  in  rhythm,  the  class  counting. 

5.  BREATHING,    (br). 

Command,  Deep  breathing, — One!  Two! 
A  deep  breath  is  inhaled  at  the  command,  One!  and  exhaled 
at  the  command,  Two ! 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  203 

6.  CHANGE  OF  FEET,    (ch  F). 
Command,  Change  of  Feet, — One!   Two! 

This  command  is  given  only  when  one  foot  has  been  moved 
away  from  its  position  beside  the  other,  as  in  stride  positions  and 
fallouts.  At  the  command,  One!  the  foot  that  has  been  moved 
away  is  brought  back  to  position  and  at  the  command,  Two!  the 
other  one  is  placed  in  a  similar  position.  Later  we  may  command, 
Feet, — Change!  and  the  pupils  execute  the  two  counts  in  even 
rhythm,  listening  to  the  sound  made  by  the  foot  to  help  them 
keep  in  unison. 

7.  CLOSING  AND  OPENING  FEET.    (F  cl)  (F  op) 
Commands,  Feet, — Close!   Feet, — Open!   or  Feet, — Out! 
At  the  first  of  these  commands  the  toes  are  turned  in  so  that 

the  inner  margins  of  the  feet  touch ;  at  the  second  command  they 
are  turned  out  to  the  usual  angle. 

8.  SWING  OF  FOOT,    (sw  F) 
Command,  Free  foot  forward, — Swing! 

This  command  is  given  only  when  one  leg  is  raised,  and  the 
command  may  be  to  swing  it  forward,  sideward,  outward,  or 
backward.  Swing  of  the  free  foot  is  also  used  in  hopping  exer- 
cises, the  foot  being  swung  as  the  hop  is  taken. 

9.  KNEE  STRETCHINGS.    (K  str) 
Command,  R  knee  sideward, — Stretch! 

This  command  is  given  only  when  the  knee  is  raised  as  in 
Figure  87.  At  the  command  the  limb  is  quickly  extended  to  the 
position  of  Figure  86.  The  knee  can  also  be  stretched  forward, 
backward,  or  outward  to  the  positions  mentioned  in  exercise  13, 
page  192. 

10.  PREPARATION  FOR  JUMPING,    (pr  jp) 

Command,  Preparation  for  jumping,  zvith  counting, — Start! 

-The  following  four  movements  are  taken  in  even  rhythm: 
(i)  raise  heels — (2)  bend  knees — (3)  stretch  knees — (4)  heels 
sink.  The  third  count  is  taken  as  if  to  jump,  but  the  toes  do  not 
leave  the  floor. 


204 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


KNEEUNG.     (y2  kn) 

Command,  On  the  right  (or  left)  knee, — Kneel! 

Executed  in  three  counts,  as  follows:  (i)  Place  the  right 
foot  backward;  (2)  Bend  knees  until  right  knee  rests  on  the 
floor;  (3)  Place  the  left  foot  forward  to  bring  the  knee  to  a  right 
angle.  (Figure  102  shows  count  2.) 

Return  command,  In  position, — Stand! 

The  three  parts  of  the  exercises  are  reversed. 


FiG.   102.     Half  kneeling. 


FiG.  103.     Kneeling. 


KNEEUNG.    (kn)    Fig.  103. 

Command,  On  both  knees, — Kneel! 

This  is  also  executed  in  three  counts,  the  first  two  being  the 
same  as  the  preceding ;  the  third  count  of  this  movement  consists 
in  placing  the  forward  knee  on  the  floor  beside  the  other. 

Return  command,  In  position, — Stand!  In  three  counts,  as 
in  the  preceding  exercise. 


SWEDISH   GYMNASTICS  2O5 

JUMPING  EXERCISES,    (jp  u)   (jp  f)   (jp  s)   (jp  turn  90°). 

Command,  Jumping  upward,  with  counting, — Start! 

This  exercise  consists  of  six  counts,  as  follows : 

Raise  heels — bend  knees — spring  upward — alight  on  toes  with 
knees  bent — straighten  knees — lower  heels.  Some  teachers  prefer 
three  counts,  taking  I  and  2  together,  3  and  4  together,  and  5  and 
6  together. 

Common  faults  in  jumping  are  (i)  alighting  with  knees 
straight  and  thus  striking  the  floor  too  hard,  jarring  the  whole 
body,  and  (2)  bending  trunk  forward  on  alighting.  Accurate  form 
is  especially  important  in  jumping. 

Upward  jumping  may  be  done  with  a  turn  of  90,  180,  270, 
or  even  360  degrees,  the  turn  being  made  while  in  the  air,  the 
words,  "with  a  turn  of  90  degrees  to  right  (or  left)"  being  in- 
cluded in  the  command. 

The  jump  may  be  taken  forward  or  sideward  instead  of  di- 
rectly upward  without  changing  the  form  of  the  exercise,  changing 
a  single  word  in  the  command.  Turns  can  also  be  made  in  these 
jumps.  When  the  jump  is  forward  it  can  be  taken  with  a  running 
start,  inserting  into  the  command  the  words  (f-zvith  one  (or  more) 
running  step,  starting  with  left  foot  (or  right)."  Here  the  form 
of  the  exercise  is  changed.  There  are  five  counts  with  one  step, 
as  follows : 

Place  foot  forward  and  bend  knees  ready  to  spring — jump 
forward — alight  with  feet  together — straighten  knees — lower 
heels.  With  each  added  step  one  count  is  added.  To  get  the 
benefit  of  the  running  start  there  must  be  no  pause  after  the  first 
count,  the  jump  being  taken  at  once.  The  turn  can  also  be  made 
with  the  running  jumps,  but  the  turn  is  most  easily  made  toward 
the  foot  from  which  the  jump  is  taken. 

GYMNASTICS  TACTICS. 

i.     ALIGNMENT  FORWARD.    (Al  f)    Fig.  104. 
This  command  is  given  only  when  the  pupils  are  standing  in 
line,  one  behind  another.    The  front  pupil  of  the  line  stands  fast 


206  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

in,  position  as  a  guide  for  the  positions  of  the  others  ;  all  the  others 
measure  the  distance  by  raising  the  arms  forward  and  moving  up 
until  just  able  to  touch  the  one  next  in  front ;  at  the  same  time  the 
line  is  straightened.  Pupils  stand  in  this  position  until  the  return 
command,  Arms, — Down! 

By  placing  one  pupil  in  front  of  the  class  to  represent  a  guide, 
the  teacher  can  demonstrate  the  manner  of  measuring  distance,  as 
it  is  to  be  done  by  the  pupils. 


FIG.  104.    Alignment  forward. 

...     2.     ALIGNMENT  SIDEWARD.     (Al  s)    Fig.  105. 

Command,  Right, — Dress! 

This  command  is  given  only  when  the  pupils  are  standing  in 
one  or  more  lines,  side  by  side.  The  pupil  at  the  right  end  of  the 
line  is  the  guide ;  he  stands  still  when  the  command  is  given,  with 
eyes  to  the  front. 

All  including  the  guide  place  left  hand  on  hip ;  all  the  others 
in"  the  line  turn  head  and  eyes  to  the  right  and  move  up  until  right 
arm  touches  the  left  elbow  of  the  one  next  on  the  right;  at  the 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS 


207 


same  time  the  line  is  straightened.  When  there  is  more  than  one 
line  the  second  line  is  about  30  inches  behind  the  first ;  those  in 
the  second  do  the  same  as  those  in  the  front  line  excepting  that 
they  do  not  measure  the  distance  by  raising  the  arms  forward  and 
moving  up  behind  the  corresponding  one  in  front ;  the  guide  of 
the  rear  line  measures  distance  as  for  alignment  forward. 

Return  command,  Eyes, — Front! 

At  the  return  command  all  turn  eyes  to  the  front  and  drop 
the  hand  to  the  side,  in  fundamental  position. 


Fie.  105.     Alignment  Sideward. 

By  placing  a  pupil  in  front  of  the  class  to  represent  a  guide, 
the  teacher  can  demonstrate  the  manner  of  measuring  distance; 
by  placing  two  pupils  in  position  for  a  front  line  and  one  for  the 
guide  of  the  rear  line,  the  manner  of  getting  position  in  the  rear 
line  can  be  demonstrated. 

Each  pupil  should  take  his  place  in  line  as  quickly  as  possible. 
Pupils  may  be  spaced  farther  apart  by  having  them  extend  left 
.arm  sideward  instead  of  placing  hand  on  hip.  The  command  is, 
Full  arm  distance, — Right  Dress! 


208  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

3.  FACING  TO  THE  RIGHT,    (r  fc) 
Command,  To  the  right, — Face! 

The  exercise  is  in  two  parts:  (i)  lift  the  right  toe  and  the 
left  heel  and  pivot  to  the  right  90  degrees  on  the  right  heel  by  a 
whirl  of  the  body  and  the  push  of  the  left  toe;  (2)  lift  the  left 
foot  and  place  it  beside  the  right,  bringing  it  in  from  the  side  with 
an  accent,  which  is  made  by  a  stroke  of  the  ball  of  the  foot  on  the 
floor,  made  by  extending  the  ankle,  the  knee  being  kept  straight. 

4.  FACING  ABOUT,    (ab  fc) 
Command,  About, — Face! 

This  is  exactly  like  the  right  face  except  that  a  turn  of  180 
degrees  is  made  in  the  first  part. 

5.  FACING  TO  THE  LEFT.    (1  fc) 
Command,  To  the  left, — Face! 

Turn  to  the  left,  pivoting  on  the  left  and  pushing  with  the 
right  toe. 

6.  NUMBERING,    (num) 

Command,  Count  twos  (or  fours), — Start! 

This  command  is  given  only  when  the  pupils  are  standing  in 
line  side  by  side.  At  the  command,  count  twos,  each  pupil  turns 
head  slightly  to  the  right,  except  the  guide,  who  keeps  eyes  to  the 
front;  at  the  command,  Start!  the  guide  says,  "One3/  then  the 
pupil  at  his  left  turns  his  head  quickly  to  the  front  and  says, 
"Two"  the  next  similarly  says,  "Three,"  and  so  on  until  all  have 
numbered.  When  the  class  is  in  two  lines,  the  teacher  instructs 
those  in  the  rear  line  either  to  count  in  unison  with  the  front  line 
or  to  listen  and  get  the  number  from  the  pupil  in  front  as  he  calls 
it.  The  counting  should  be  done  in  a  clear  tone,  but  not  neces- 
sarily a  loud  one. 

7.  MARCHING  STEPS,     (i  stp  f)    (2  stp  b) 

Command,  One  (or  two  or  three)  step  forward  (or  b), — 
March ! 

The  number  of  steps  commanded  are  taken  as  in  marching, 
beginning  in  all  cases  with  the  left  foot  and  bringing  in  the  foot 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  2Og 

beside  the  other  in  similar  rhythm  to  complete  the  movement.  It 
follows  that  one  step  will  occupy  two  counts,  two  steps  three 
counts,  etc.  The  last  count  is  accented  as  in  facings. 

8.  SIDE  STEPS,    (i  s  stp  r) 

Command,  One  side  step  to  right  (or  left,)  —  March! 

The  movement  occupies  two  counts  :  the  foot  is  placed  to  the 
side  as  in  stride  sideward  on  the  first  count,  and  the  other  foot  is 
brought  up  beside  it  on  the  second.  We  may  command  two  side 
steps,  but  the  second  step  is  only  a  repetition  of  the  first. 

9.  OPENING  AND  CLOSING  RANKS,   (op  rk)    (cl  rk) 
Command,  Open  ranks.  —  March! 

This  command  is  given  only  when  the  class  is  in  two  lines,  as 
in  diagram  (a)  ;  the  lines  separate  by  taking  two  steps  away  from 
each  other,  giving  position  (b).  When  the  pupils  are  facing  the 
end  of  the  class,  the  steps  are  necessarily  side  steps;  when  one 
line  is  behind  the  other,  the  front  rank  step  forward  and  the  rear 
rank  backward. 

Return  command,  Close  ranks,  —  March- 


'  I2I2I2I2I2I2 

I2I2I2I2I2I2 
I2I2I2I2I2I2 

I2I2I2I2I2I2 

10.     OPENING  AND  CLOSING  SPACES,  (op  sp)    (cl  sp) 

Command,  Open  spaces,  —  March! 

This  command  is  given  only  when  ranks  are  open  or  there  is 
only  one  line,  and  must  be  preceded  by  numbering.  The  numbers 
one  take  one  step  in  one  direction  and  the  numbers  two  take  one 
step  in  the  opposite  direction.  When  the  pupils  face  the  end  of 
the  line  steps  are  necessarily  side  steps  ;  when  they  stand  side  by 
side  in  the  line  the  steps  are  necessarily  forward  and  backward. 
It  is  customary  to  have  the  numbers  one  take  the  step  forward  or 


210  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

to  the  right  and  the  numbers  two  to  the  left  or  back.    This  brings 
the  class  to  the  position  shown  in  the  following  diagram : 

I    i    i    i    i    i 

2222222 
I      I      I      I      I      I 
2222222 

Return  command,  Close  spaces, — March! 

When  taken  directly  after  opening  spaces,  this  movement  is 
the  reverse  of  the  former;  but  since  other  exercises  are  usually 
taken  in  the  open  order,  and  the  class  may  be  facing  in  another 
direction  when  the  time  comes  to  close  the  spaces,  it  is  best  to 
think  of  returning  to  the  line  without  regard  to  the  numbers  or 
the  way  the  spaces  were  opened.  For  this  reason  we  teach  pupils 
to  go  by  the  number  and  its  corresponding  direction  in  opening 
spaces,  but  to  ignore  these  and  go  in  such  direction  as  to  close  up 
in  the  reverse  movement. 

ii.     OPENING  AND  CLOSING  ORDER,  (up  ord)    (cl  ord) 

Command,  Open  order, — March! 

This  exercise  is  simply  a  combination  of  the  last  two,  mean- 
ing to  open  the  ranks  and  then  to  immediately  open  the  spaces,  in 
even  rhythm. 

Return  command,  Close  order, — March ! 

NOTE: — Opening  and  closing  order  are  often  troublesome  to 
pupils  and  sometimes  to  teachers,  usually  because  they  do  not  fully 
comprehend  how  simple  the  movements  really  are.  The  class 
should  be  able  to  open  or  close  order  correctly  at  any  time,  no 
matter  which  way  they  are  facing  or  how  many  facings  have  been 
taken.  The  following  questions,  if  clearly  thought  out,  should 
make  the  matter  easy : 

(a)  What  are  the  four  distinct  movements  involved  in  open- 
ing and  closing  order?  See  9  and  10  above.) 

(&)  In  which  one  of  these  four  movements  does  the  pupil 
need  to  think  of  his  number?  (He  should  pay  no  attention  to  his 
number  in  the  other  three.  This  is  the  key  to  the  situation.) 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  211 

(c)  What  should  the  pupil  think  of  to  tell  him  which  way  to 
go  in  opening  and  closing  ranks  ?    When  he  has  done  it  once,  why 
not  take  the  same  steps  whenever  he  has  it  to  do  again  ? 

( d)  What  should  the  pupil  think  of  to  tell  him  which  way  to 
go  in  closing  spaces?    Why  not  simply  remember  to  reverse  the 
move  made  in  opening  spaces? 

12.  MARCHING,   (mch) 

Command,  Class  forward, — March!  or  Forward,  quick  time, 
— March ! 

At  the  explanatory  command  the  weight  of  the  body  is  poised 
far  forward;  at  the  command, — march!  pupils  start  promptly  for- 
ward, beginning  with  the  left  foot,  keeping  even  rhythm  and  all  in 
unison,  with  trunk  erect  (not  stiff)  and  arms  hanging  easily  at  the 
sides.  For  quick  time  120  steps  to  the  minute  is  the  usual  rate. 

At  the  command.  Class, — Plait!  one  more  step  is  taken  and 
the  rear  foot  is  placed  beside  the  other  on  the  next  count,  with  an 
account  as  in  facing.  Because  of  the  momentum  of  the  body  and 
its  inclination  forward  in  marching  it  is  almost  impossible  to  stop 
instantly,  which  is  the  reason  for  the  extra  step  after  the  com- 
mand, "Halt!"  To  make  the  command,  "Class"  of  any  value  as  a 
warning  signal  it  must  be  spoken  on  the  step  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  word,  Halt!  instead  of  leaving  a  considerable  pause  be- 
tween as  we  eeed  to  do  in  most  commands.  When  it  is  desired 
to  march  slowly  the  command  is  Forward,  slow  time, — March! 

13.  MARKING  TIME,   (m  t)  Fig.  106. 

Command,  Mark  time, — March! 

This  exercise  is  similar  to  marching  and  begins  like  it  with 
the  left  foot ;  the  feet  are  raised  directly  upward  by  bending  the 
hip  and  knee  joints,  keeping  even  rhythm  and  exact  unison  with- 
out advancing.  Class, — Halt!  is  commanded  and  executed  as  in 
marching. 

Faults :  Rocking  sidewise  alternately  as  the  foot  is  lifted.     , 


212  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

(.'  ,14.     RUNNING,   (run) 

/  Command,  Running  forward,  March !  or  Forward,  double 
time, — March! 

,  •  At  the  command  forward  the  weight  is  thrown  on  the  right 
,foot  and  the  arms  are  bent  at  about  a  right  angle,  with  the  hands 
half  closed  and  the  elbows  held  slightly  back ;  at  the  command,— 
March!  the  left  foot  is  swung  forward  with  the  knee  slightly  bent 


FIG.    106.     Marking  time. 

and  the  weight  thrown  upon  it  by  a  spring  from  the  right  foot; 
then  the  right  foot  executes  the  same  movement  and  it  is  con- 
tinued in  even  rhythm,  with  the  arms  swinging  easily  at  the  sides 
of  the  chest. 

At  the  command,  Class, — Halt!  three  steps  are  taken  to  give 
time  to  check  the  momentum  of  the  body,  and  the  foot  is  brought 
in  on  the  fourth  count.  If  it  is  desired  to  change  to  marching 
time  without  stopping  the  command,  Quick  time, — March!  or 
Slow  time, — March! 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  213 

.        15.    HOPPING  EXERCISES,  (hop) 

Command,  Hopping  on  left  (or  r)  foot  with  free  foot  for- 
ward (or  s  or  b), — Start! 

At  the  explanatory  command  raise  the  free  foot  in  the  direc- 
tion given;  at  the  command,  Start!  spring  upward  from  the  sta- 
tionary foot  and  repeat  in  even  rhythm,  alighting  each  tim,e  on 
the  same  foot.  At  the  command,  Class, — Halt!  stop  the  movement 
and  bring  the  free  foot  beside  the  other  on  the  next  count.  The 
number  of  hopping  may  be  varied  by  hopping  two,  four,  or  a 
larger  number  of  times  on  one  foot  and  then  changing  to  the 
other;  the  free  foot  may  be  swung  in  rhythm  to  the  hopping; 
appropriate  commands  must  be  given. 

16.  SKIPPING,   (skip) 

Command,  Skipping  forward, — Start!    . 

Skipping  consists  in  moving  rapidly  forward  by  hopping 
twice  on  one  foot  and  twice  on  the  other  in  succession,  taking  a 
full  step  in  distance  each  time.  Start  with  the  left  foot  and  stop 
as  in  running. 

17.  MARCHING  TO  THE  REAR,   (mch  rr) 
Command,  To  the  rear, — March! 

This  is  usually  given  while  the  pupils  are  marching,  but  may 
be  given  first  from  standing  position  to  acquire  the  coordination. 

At  the  command,  March!  which  is  given  just  as  the  right  foot 
strikes  the  floor,  (i)  take  one  step  with  the  left  foot,  placing  it 
directly  in  front  of  the  right  foot;  (2)  lift  the  heels,  with  both 
feet  on  the  floor,  and  turn  180  degrees  toward  the  right  on  the 
balls  of  the  feet;  (3)  step  forward  with  the  left  foot  and  continue 
marching  in  the  opposite  direction. 

This  is  the  first  example  of  a  command  that  must  be  spoken 
at  a  given  time,  and  so  requires  special  attention  and  practice  by 
the  teacher.  The  command,  "To  the  rear"'  should  be  spoken 
rapidly  just  as  the  left  foot  strikes  the  floor,  the  three  words  all  in 
the  time  of  the  one  step;  the  word,  "March"  is  then  spoken  in 
unison  with  the  stroke  of  the  right  foot.  Advanced  classes  may 


2I4 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


be  taught  to  take  the  movement  at  a  command  with  a  long  pause, 
but  beginners  do  best  as  stated  above. 

To  teach  the  exercise  it  should  be  developed  in  the  manner 
previously  used  for  complex  exercises,  starting  from  the  standing 
position. 

^  Marching  to  right  (mch  r)  and  to  left  (mch  1)  are  command- 
ed in  a  similar  manner.  The  execution  differs  in  the  following 
points :  In  marching  to  the  right  the  foot  is  placed  outward  in- 
stead of  in  front  of  the  other  on  the  first  count,  and  the  turn  is 
90  degrees ;  marching  to  the  left  is  commanded  in  the  same  way 
but  two  steps  are  taken,  bringing  the  right  foot  forward;  then 
the  turn  can  be.  made  to  the  left. 


THE  SWEDISH  DAY'S  ORDER. 

The  Swedish  Day's  Order  is  a  standard  form  of  lesson  fol- 
lowed by  teachers  of  Swedish  gymnastics  and  designed  to  guide 
the  teacher  in  the  selection  of  exercises.  It  puts  into  practice  the 
principles  of  the  Swedish  system  stated  on  page  175  and  uses  the 
exercises  we  have  been  studying.  The  exercises  are  divided  into 
eleven  groups,  each  of  which  is  given  to  accomplish  a  certain 
definite  purpose.  The  names  of  these  groups  are  shown  in  the 
following  chart: 


The 
Day's  " 
Order 


Preparatory 


1 


Body  of  Lesson  •< 


I. — Order  Movements. 
II. — Leg  Movements. 
III. — Arch  Flexions. 
IV. — Heave  Movements. 
V. — Balance  Movements. 
VI. — Back  Exercises. 
VII. — Abdominal  Exercises. 
VIII.— Lateral  Trunk  Movements. 
IX. — The  Climax ;  Running, 
Jumping  and  Games. 


Quieting 


f      X. — Slow  Leg  Movements. 
\    XL—] 


-Breathing  Exercises. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS  215 

The  Day's  Order  is  intended  for  use  in  the  school  room,  where 
the  pupils  go  directly  from  various  school  occupations  to  gymnas- 
tics, and  go  back  at  once  to  their  other  tasks  when  the  gymnastic 
lesson  is  finished ;  this  explains  some  of  its  peculiar  features.  The 
first  two  groups  merely  prepare  the  pupils  for  the  main  body  of 
the  lesson,  and  the  last  two  prepare  them  to  resume  their  mental 
work  to  best  advantage.  The  different  groups  will  now  be 
described. 

GROUP  I:  ORDER  MOVEMENTS 

Pupils  going  directly  to  gymnastic  practice  from  other  school 
activities  are  not  apt  to  be  in  the  best  possible  mental  condition  for 
entering  into  it  promptly.  These  exercises  aim  to  attract  the  at- 
tention of  the  pupils  from  what  they  have  been  doing  and  to  turn 
it  toward  muscular  control.  To  be  good  for  this  purpose,  exer- 
cises must  be  quick,  with  a  definite  start  and  finish,  so  that  the 
teacher  can  require  accuracy  of  both  form  and  rhythm;  they 
should  be  given  by  command,  since  exercises  in  series  soon  be- 
come reflex  and  so  permit  the  attention  to  wander ;  coming  at  the 
beginning  of  the  lesson,  they  should  require  but  little  muscular 
effort.  Facings,  simple  arm  and  foot  positions,  and  opening 
order,  are  good  examples  of  Order  Movements.  Since  attention 
is  especially  required  in  learning  new  exercises,  we  may  reason- 
ably call  any  new  movement  an  Order  Movement  while  it  is  being 
learned,  unless  it  plainly  falls  in  some  other  group  of  the  Day's 
Order. 

GROUP  II:  LEG  MOVEMENTS 

These  exercises  are  intended  to  give  the  general  effect  known 
as  "warming  up,"  which  includes  a  slight  rise  in  the  temperature 
of  the  body,  moderate  increase  in  the  heart  action  and  breathing, 
and  the  sending  of  more  blood  to  the  muscles.  The  heat  that 
causes  the  warming  up  arises  from  the  chemical  action  that  takes 
place  in  the  muscles  during  exercise.  Since  we  wish  a  large 
amount  of  this  chemical  change  without  much  fatigue,  we  choose 
exercises  that  employ  the  largest  muscles  in  the  body  rather  than 


2l6  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

the  smaller  ones.  Marching,  heel  raising,  running,  and  other 
movements  where  the  lower  limbs  lift  the  entire  body  make  the 
best  movements  for  this  group. 

It  is  found  as  a  matter  of  experience  that  exercises  given  by 
separate  commands  are  too  slow  to  serve  well  for  the  present  pur- 
pose, and  so  leg  measurements  are  always  given  in  rhythm  when 
it  is  possible. 

GROUP  III:  ARCH  FU-XIONS 

These  are  backward  beandings  of  the  neck  and  upper  portion 
of  the  spinal  column,  taken  with  the  object  of  correcting  round 
shoulders.  This  fault  of  posture,  so  common  among  school  chil- 
dren and  students,  always  flattens  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  and 
lessens  the  range  of  the  breathing  movements,  and  so  diminishes 
the  capacity  of  the  lungs.  The  alarming  prevalence  of  fatal  lung 
diseases,  like  pneumonia  and  consumption,  points  to  the  import- 
ance of  keeping  the  chest  in  good  condition.  By  the  practice  of 
arch  flexions,  the  muscles  supporting  the  chest  are  developed,  and 
also  those  that  hold  the  spinal  column  erect ;  the  tissues  across  the 
front  of  the  chest  and  shoulders  are  stretched  at  the  same  time, 
making  it  gradually  easier  for  the  person  to  hold  the  normal 
posture  'and  to  breathe  deeply. 

GROUP  IV:  HEAVE  MOVEMENTS 

Heave  movements  are  movements  of  the  arms  that  help  to 
expand  the  chest.  The  typical  heave  movements,  sometimes  called 
"the  true  heave  movements,"  are  those  in  which  the  body  is  sus- 
pended by  the  arms  as  in  climbing,  swinging  on  rings,  etc.  Large 
muscles  passing  from  the  chest  to  the  upper  arm  are  used  in  these 
movements,  exerting  an  upward  pull  on  the  ribs  and  thus  enlarg- 
ing the  chest  and  making  it  more  pliable.  Since  these  "suspen- 
sion" exercises  are  too  severe  for  some  pupils,  and  as  the  neces- 
sary apparatus  is  not  always  provided,  milder  arm  movements 
having  a  similar  effect  are  used.  Arm  raising,  arm  stretching, 
neck  firm,  etc.,  are  examples. 


SWEDISH  GYMNASTICS 

GROUP  V:  BALANCE  MOVEMENTS 


217 


These  are  for  general  improvement  of  posture  and  cultiva- 
tion of  ability  to  maintain  the  balance  under  difficulties.  The 
exercises  are  mainly  standing  positions  that  give  an  unstable  poise, 
held  for  a  much  longer  time  than  positions  taken  for  other  pur- 
poses ;  marching  on  a  narrow  beam  or  wire  and  taking  other 
exercises  on  them  are  also  used.  (Fig.  108.) 


Fie.  107.    Head,  back- 
ward while  sitting. 


FIG.  108.     Walking  the  beam. 

GROUP  VI :  BACK  EXERCISES 

In  order  to  cultivate  control  of  the  posture  of  the  trunk  and 
to  develop  and  train  the  back  muscles  to  hold  the  trunk  properly, 
we  use  positions  in  which  the  trunk  inclines  so  as  to  throw  the 
weight  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body  on  the  back  muscles.  This 
is  accomplished  when  we  incline  the  trunk  forward  while  sup- 


2i&  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

ported  from  below,  as  in  fallout  forward  or  trunk  forward,  or 
when  we  incline  it  backward  while  it  is  supported  at  both  extrem- 
ities, as  in  leaning  hang. 

GROUP  VII :  ABDOMINAL  EXERCISES 

The  purpose  of  abdominal  exercise  is  to  cultivate  the  ability 
to  maintain  good  posture  of  the  trunk,  to  strengthen  the  abdom- 
inal muscles,  and  to  stimulate  the  digestive  organs.  The  trunk 
is  held  in  normal  position  in  all  of  these  exercises,  which  aids  in 
promoting  goofr  postures ;  every  strong  contraction  of  the  ab- 
dominal muscles  presses  upon  the  stomach,  liver  and  other  organs 
in  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  thus  stimulates  their  activity  directly, 
and  also  indirectly  by  the  inuence  of  the  alternations  of  pressure 
on  the  circulation  of  blood  in  them.  Occupations  of  civilized  life 
provide  exercise  for  the  abdominal  muscles  less  than  for  any  other 
important  group,  arid  the  resulting  weakness  of  these  muscles 
leads  to  bad  posture,  displacement  of  the  internal  organs,  and 
disease. 

GROUP  VIII:  LATERAL  TRUNK  EXERCISES 

These  are  movements  in  which  we  bend  the  trunk  laterally, 
twist  it,  or  incline  it  sideward,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
mobility  of  the  spinal  column,  improving  the  posture  of  the  trunk, 
and  stimulating  the  abdominal  organs. 
I 

GROUP  IX:  RUNNING  AND  JUMPING 

Here  is  the  climax  of  the  lesson.  The  work  should  be  the 
strongest  and  most  difficult  of  all.  Games,  when  the  space  per- 
mits, are  useful;  running,  jumping,  and  the  more  vigorous  fancy 
steps  are  the  exercises  most  used.  Grade  pupils  often  suffer  from 
lack  of  exercise  of  this  kind,  which  they  thoroughly  enjoy  but 
which  teachers  are  apt  to  neglect  because  it  leads  to  some  disorder 
and  noise.  When  the  time  given  to  gymnastics  is  short  and  the 
work  done  in  the  grade  room,  it  is  often  best  to  attempt  little  more 


SWKDJSH  GYMNASTICS  2 19 

than  posture  work  in  Swedish  gymnastics,  and  plan  to  provide  the 
more  vigorous  exercises  at  other  times  in  the  form  of  plays  and 
games. 

GROUP  X:  SLOW  LEG  MOVEMENTS 

When  a  true  climax  has  been  reached  and  the  pupils  are  con- 
siderably warmed  up,  it  is  necessary  to  choose  exercises  that  will 
serve  as  a  gradual  descent  from  the  preceding  group,  so  as  to 
avoid  the  undesirable  effects  of  stopping  too  suddenly.  The  exer- 
cises usually  chosen  are  like  those  of  group  two,  but  gradually 
decreasing  in  vigor.  Marching  is  the  most  satisfactory  exercise 
of  this  group. 

GROUP  XI :  BREATHING  EXERCISES 

The  object  here  is  to  continue  the  quieting  effects  of  the  tenth 
group  and  at  the  same  time  to  improve  the  development  and  con- 
trol of  the  breathing  muscles  and  increase  the  mobility  of  the 
chest.  Slow  and  deep  inhaling  and  exhaling  of  the  breath  are  used 
as  the  exercises.  It  was  formerly  customary  to  take  arm  move- 
ments with  the  breathing,  on  the  supposition  that  they  aid  in  chest 
expansion,  but  it  has  been  found  out  that  the  deepest  breathing 
can  be  done  with  the  arms  hanging  easily  at  the  sides. 

A   SERIES   OF  TWELVE  LESSONS   SUITABLE  FOR   HIGH    SCHOOL   GIRLS 

WHO    HAVE    HAD     NO    PREVIOUS    TRAINING, 

WORKING  IN  AN  OPEN  HALL. 

LESSON   i.  LESSON  2.                        LESSON   3. 

I.  Pos.  Ht.  Std.  s.  I.  Std   f.                            I.  Std  f,  ch  F. 

II.  M  t.  II.  M  t.                             II.  Mch. 

III.  III.  III.  Hf,  std  f,  H  bd  b. 

IV.  A  rse  s.  IV.  A  fl  s.  IV.  A  rse  f. 

V.  Hf,  H  rse.  V.  Hf,  H  rse.  V.  A  s  rse  H  rse. 

VI.  VI.  Hf  std  s,  Tr  incl  f      VI.  Hf  std  s,  Tr  incl  f. 
VII.                                    VII.  Hf  std  f,  Tr          VII.  Hf  std  f,  incl  b. 

VIII.  Std  s,  Tr  bd  s.  incl  b.  VIII.  A   fl   s   std   s,   Tr 

IX.  Mch.  VIII.  A  fl  s  std  s,  Tr  bd  s. 

X.  Mch.  bd  s.  IX.  Mch. 

XI.  Br.  IX.  Mch.  XI.  Mch. 

X.  Mch.  XL  Br. 

XI.  Br. 


220  I'llYSU'AI,    TRAIN  INC 


LESSON 

4- 

Ij-sso 

N   5. 

LESSON 

6. 

1  1 

I. 

I    Stp  f. 

I    sip  h. 

I. 

2  Stps  f.    2  StpS  b. 

L 

3  stps. 

II. 

Mch. 

II. 

'Mi  1  1  . 

II. 

Mch. 

III. 

Mf  sld    f, 

II   hd   h. 

III. 

A     II    | 

std    f, 

II 

III. 

A  11  s  std 

f  ,  H  bd  b. 

IV 

A    II    f. 

hd  h. 

IV. 

X  1. 

V. 

II    rsc,   A 

fl  B, 

Mf 

IV. 

Nf. 

V. 

H  rse,  A 

11 

f,  Hf, 

etc. 

V. 

A  11  f, 

IF  rsc. 

etc. 

VI. 

A    fl    f    std    s 

Tr 

VJ. 

A    11    f 

std    s, 

Tr 

VI. 

Std  s,  Tr 

incl    1.     \ 

incl  f. 

incl    f. 

fl  s.  A  fl  f. 

VII. 

Mf  sld  f.  incl 

h. 

VII. 

II  f   std 

f,  incl 

h. 

VII.    \  II   1  •,!,!  f. 

incl   h. 

VIII. 

A    II    s    std    s. 

Tr 

VIM. 

A    11    f 

Std     S, 

T, 

VIM. 

Nf  std  s, 

Ti     l.d    |, 

hd  s. 

hd   s. 

IX. 

Mch 

IX. 

Mch. 

IX. 

Mch. 

X. 

Mch! 

X. 

Mch. 

X. 

Mch. 

XL 

i:, 

XL 

Mr. 

XL 

Br, 

LKSSON 

7- 

LESSON   8. 

LESSON 

9- 

1. 

Std  s,   K 

oh. 

1. 

I    Stp  S. 

\l    i 

r. 

R  fc. 

II 

fcfeh, 

II. 

Mch. 

II. 

Mrh 

Ml. 

\    1  sld   1, 

II  h 

d  h. 

III. 

A    hd    sld    f,    II 

III. 

II  f  std   s, 

H 

bd  b. 

IV. 

A   hd. 

Ixl   h. 

IV. 

A   i    <•   In 

A   11   fu. 

\ 

II   rsc.  A 

hd,  Nf. 

IV. 

A  Ixl. 

V. 

A  s.  I,  rsc  s. 

VI. 

Std  s,  T, 

i.    \ 

1x1. 

V. 

Hf,  L  rse  s. 

VI. 

II  f  std  s, 

Tr 

hd  h. 

VII 

1  1  1    -.Id    1.    Ti     in,  1 

VI. 

Sl.l   s, 

T.     incl 

f, 

VII. 

II  f  std  f, 

Tr 

incl  h. 

h.                                           Nf.  \  III     \    f,  Tr  hd  s. 

VIM.    III.   T,    l,,l   s               VII.    Ml   std   f,  Tr  inol  IX.    Km,. 

IX.    Km,,                                          b.  X     M,-l, 

X.  Mch.                       VIII.  A  s,  Trbd  s.  XI.  lir. 
XI.  Br.                            IX.  Run. 
X.  Mch. 
XL  Br. 

LESSON  10.                     I.I-SSON   ii.  LESSON  12. 

I.  R  fc.                           I.  Ab  fc.  l.  Ah  iv. 

II.  Hf,  H  rse.                M.  Hf  std  B,  H  rse.  1 1.  in  std  i    //  > 

1 1 1.  A  s  std  s,  Ch  arch.     III.  A  f  std  s,  ch  arch.  III.  A  bd  std  s.  Ch  arch 

i\     A  bd,  A  str  s.            IV.  A  bd,  A  str  s.  IV.  A  hd.   \st.sstds. 

V.  Nf,  L  rsc  s.               V.  A  bd,  L  rsc  s.  VI.  N  i  sid  s.  Tr  bd  d. 

\i    A  f  std  s,  Tr  bd  d.    VI.  A  bd  std  s,  Tr  bd  VII.  A  f  std  f.  T,  in,  1  h. 

VII.    \   i  ltd  f,  Tr  incl             d.  VIII.  Mf  std  I.  l.d  s. 

b.  VI  I.    A    I    std    f.  Tr   incl     I  X.    '/',•/•.  ch   I-  ..n  cmint 

\  III      \  hd.  Tr  hd  s.                      b.  3. 

IX.  Hop.   ch   F  on       \  Ml.  N  f,  Tr  bd  s.  X.  Mch. 

..  .mi  o.                   IX.  Hop,   ch    F   on  XL  Br. 
X.  Mch.                                   count  3. 
XL  Br.                              X.  Mch. 
XI.   llr. 


I'll. \ITKK    XI. 


ci  n \i  \\  «..  M  \  \..i  [( 

r,KNi;KAi,  I'uiNrii'i.Ks.  The  (icrman  system  of  gymnastics 
represents  a  national  movement  to  popnlari/e  hodih 
ediu  ational  and  h\;;iemc  pm  p..  ..--,  ,md  lo  m.ike  ilu-m  nnivei  al. 
I  nlike  the  Swedish  system,  ihe  recreative  ell'ects  <>|  ex.-ici-.e  ,ne 
cmphasi/cd  i;itli<-i  lli.in  llu-  cnrn-ct  ivr  cllC(!s;  in  the  place  of  a 
fc\\  cxiTcisrs  scK-clcd  \\illi  i-jcal  cair,  llic  (  icnnaii  sysli'in  inrliulfs 
an  alnm-,1  endless  iiiiiiilu-r.  'iMu*  fnlli  »\\  in;;  principles  arc  rniplia- 
si/cd  : 

i.      ('.yninaslirs  should   pmvidr  li.ilaiu  c<|   dc\  d<  ipmrnl    «,|'    ||i,> 

inn  «  iilar  system. 

J.      To  scriu-f   \  iiM»r  <>i    arlion  and   lirsl    clVrcls,   lln-  <     ci . 
inns!  lie  pic. i  Mif;  to  llic  pupils. 

^.  I'lacli  U-aclici'  should  In-  picpaicd,  |)\  an  C\|CIIM\C  -.Indv 
•  •I  anatomy,  ph\  SKI|.>:;\  ,  .md  ^vmnaslirs,  lo  make  and  cxecnlc-  his 
<>\vii  lesson  plans;  no  ii:;id  loini  nl  lesson  is  advr-alilr. 

4.  The  leaelu-r  inii>,l  assume  Hie  pupils  lo  he  iioimal  individ- 
uals; eoiieihve  and  remedial  ;;\  miiasl  ics  aie  in  (he  province  of 
the  pliysieian  and  the  ho  ,pilal,  not  ol  the  leaelu-i  and  ihe  •.»  h<ni|. 

C'l,ASSKS   (»!•     MxivlU'lSlvS.       Tlh-    (  a-llliail    SVstein    ie.,r-n 

following  classes  of  exercises : 

l.      l;ice  c-\eieises,  ineaiiin-   those  lakeii   in  slandin.i;   p..,iiioii 

witlmiii  apparatus.    These  inelude  some  that  closely  resemble  the 

Swedish  exercises,  and  als.i  ilier  ones.    Taeties, 

lii'.m  r  mai  <  Imi",  and   lain  \    sti'ps  .n  c  included  hei  e 

2.     Exercises  wiih  liidit  a  ppai  a  ins,  such  as  dumb  bells,  wands, 

I  ndian  clnhs,  hoops,  etc. 

I      CM  i<       on    |I,M\  N    .ippai. tins,     .oineliines   callc«l,   "heavy 

gymnastics/'  including  work  on  parallel  bars,  horizontal  bar,  vault- 
in:-,  ha r  an. I  horse,  Irape/e,  havelin^   rin^s,  iKiiii-;  lilies,  laddei-.. 


222  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

ropes,  poles,  etc.    Here  the  body  must  be  lifted,  at  least  in  part, 
by  the  arms. 

4.  Companion  exercises,  including  athletic  contests,  games, 
and  combats.  The  Germans  as  a  race  are  especially  fond  of  the 
third  class  of  exercises  mentioned  which  require  and  develop  great 
individual  strength  and  skill.  They  use  apparatus  as  a  means  of 
increasing  interest  in  gymnastics,  while  the  Swedes  use  it  only  to 
produce  definite  effects  on  the  body. 

THE  GERMAN  PLAN  OF  LESSON 

While  not  believing  in  the  use  of  a  uniform  plan  of  lesson  as 
complex  and  unvarying  as  the  Swedish,  the  teachers  of  German 
gymnastics  are  inclined  to  follow  a  plan  that  is  about  as  follows, 
the  lesson  occupying  about  an  hour : 

1.  Marching.    For  boys  this  is  of  a  military  character,  last- 
ing about  eight  minutes,  and  ending  with  a  run;  for  girls  it  is 
more  often  figure  marching  and  fancy  steps,  lasting  fifteen  min- 
utes. 

2.  Exercises  with  light  apparatus,  boys  twelve  minutes,  girls 
fifteen  minutes. 

3.  Exercises  on  heavy  apparatus  with  at  least  one  change  of 
apparatus,  and  including  some  form  of  jumping;  boys  thirty  min- 
utes, girls  twenty  minutes. 

4.  A  game,  lasting  ten  minutes. 

The  Germans  make  more  distinction  than  the  Swedes  be- 
tween exercises  for  boys  and  for  girls  ;  they  agree  with  the  Swedes 
in  giving  games  only  a  subordinate  place  in  a  gymnastic  lesson, 
instead  of  devoting  whole  periods  to  games  as  do  the  English  and 
Americans. 

The  plan  of  lessons  outlined  above  can  be  used  in  school 
gymnastics  only  in  exceptional  cases,  where  there  is  a  fully  equip- 
ped gymnasium  and  full  hour  periods  for  gymnastics.  The  pres- 
ent course  will  deal  only  with  light  apparatus  and  fancy  steps, 
since  these  illustrate  best  the  exercises  useful  in  the  schools  and 
the  methods  of  teaching  and  conducting  them. 


GERMAN  GYMNASTICS  223 

The  following  movements  with  light  aparatus  are  given  to 
illustrate  common  forms  of  German  gymnastic  exercises,  and  for 
practice  in  teaching.  Students  should  prepare  to  teach  these  move- 
ments. The  first  thing  in  such  preparation  is  to  read  the  defini- 
tions with  the  apparatus  in  hand,  executing  each  movement  as  it 
is  read,  thus  fixing  a  clear  idea  of  how  it  is  done.  While  the 
teacher  may  vary  from  the  manner  in  which  the  movement  is 
defined,  if  he  has  reason  for  so  doing,  he  must  never  leave  it  in- 
definite, but  must  always  teach  a  certain  definite  thing.  On  ac- 
count of  the  great  number  of  movements  used,  commands  in  Ger- 
man gymnastics  are  less  simple  and  exact  than  in  Swedish. 

DUMB  BEU,S 

Dumb  bells  for  the  following  exercises  should  be  of  wood, 
varying  from  one-fourth  of  a  pound  in  weight  for  the  smallest 
pupils  to  one  pound  for  the  strongest  of  high  school  boys.  Racks 
may  be  obtained  for  hanging  dumb  bells  on  the  wall,  or  they  can 
be  conveniently  kept  in  a  strong  basket,  in  which  they  may  be 
moved  from  place  to  place  as  needed. 

Fundamental  position  is  usually  taken  with  the  arms  at  the 
sides ;  if  pupils  are  inclined  to  make  too  much  noice  with  the  bells 
they  may  be  directed  to  take  rest  position  with  bells  on  the  hips. 

i.    POSITION  OF  BEU.S. 

(a)  Command,  Bells  on  hips, — Place! 

The  bells  are  lifted  and  the  knuckles  placed  against  the  waist 
just  at  the  crest  of  the  hip  bone,  with  thumbs  to  the  front.  Fig.  109. 
Return  command,  Bells, — Down! 

(b)  Command,  Bells  on  shoulders, — Place!    Fig.  no. 
Arms  are  raised  sideward  and  bells  placed  horizontally  on 

the  shoulders  with  thumbs  to  the  rear. 
Return  command,  Bells, — Down! 

(c)  Command,  Bells  on  chest, — Place! 

Bells  are  raised  by  bending  arms  and  placing  them  high  up  on 
chest  in  the  form  of  the  letter  V,  lower  end  of  bells  close  to- 
gether but  not  touching,  elbows  close  to  sides.  Fig.  112. 

Return  command,  Bells, — Doivn! 


224 


PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 


(d)  Command,  Poise  the  Bells  to  square, — Raise! 
The  bells  are  raised  sideward  and  then  the  elbows  bent  to  a 
right  angle  and  the  palms  turned  toward  the  head.    See  Fig.  1 14. 
Return  command,  Bells, — Down! 


FIG.  109.  Bells     FIG.  no.    Bells 
on    hips,    stride  on  shoulders, 
sideward.  .   • 


P  IG.  in.     Bells  to  right  horizontal, 
right  sideward  layout. 

2.    SWINGS  OF  BEI.LS. 

These  are  movements  of  bells  with  elbows  extended. 

(a)  Command,  Bells  sideward, — Swing!  Arms  are  raised 
sideward  until  they  are  horizontal,  palms  down. 

Return  command,  Bells  downward, — Swing! 

Swings  are  also  made  in  a  similar  manner  forward  and  for- 
ward-upward from  fundamental  position,  forward  and  upward 
from  sideward,  sideward  and  upward  from  forward,  and  sideward 
and  forward  from  overhead.  When  the  bells  are  swung  forward 
or  upward  the  palms  are  usually  turned  toward  each  other.  The 


GERMAN  GYMNASTICS 


225 


command  Swing  is  used  whenever  the  straight  arm  is  swung 
from  the  shoulder,  except  in  strokes.  The  swing  to  right  hori- 
zontal is  shown  in  Fig.  HI. 

3.     STROKES. 

Strike  bells  forward, — One!  The  bells  are  swung  sideward 
and  then  forward  in  a  curve  and  the  thumb  ends  are  struck  strong- 
ly together  with  the  arms  straight  and  horizontal  forward.  At 


FIG.    112. 
chest. 


Bells    on 


FIG     113.      Stroke   in 
front  of  thighs. 


FIG.  114.    The  square. 


the  command  "Two,"  the  bells  are  swung  back  to  the  starting 
point.  Strokes  are  also  made  in  a  similar  way  overhead,  in  front 
of  thighs,  (Fig.  113),  behind  hips,  etc.  A  starting  point  should 
be  chosen  that  will  permit  a  good  full  swing  of  the  bells. 

Anvil  strokes  are  strokes  in  which  one  bell  is  held  still  to 
represent  an  anvil  while  the  other  strikes  it  a  swinging  blow  to 
imitate  a  hammer.  Anvil  stroke  on  left  shoulder, — Strike!  or 
One!  The  left  bell  is  placed  on  the  left  shoulder  as  in  Fig.  no 
and  the  right  bell  strikes  a  strong  blow  against  tfie  front  end  of 
it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  115.  At  the  command  "Two,"  the  bells  re- 
turn. Anvil  strokes  are  made  at  either  hip  or  either  shoulder,  on 
either  knee  with  a  fallout,  at  full  arms'  length,  and  in  other  places. 


226 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


4.    THRUSTS. 

These  are  extensions  of  the  arms,  starting  from  some  position 
in  which  the  arm  is  bent,  usually  from  bells  on  chest  or  shoulders. 
Right  bell  sideward, — Thrift!  The  arm  is  extended  sideward 
horizontal  and  as  it  extends  the  thumb  is  placed  against  the  ball 
of  the  bell  and  the  wrist  is  bent  so  as  to  bring  the  bell  in  line  with 
the  arm;  the  arm  is  rotated  so  as  to  turn  the  back  to  the  front. 
(Fig.  116).  Bell, — Replace!  The  command  may  also  be  given. 
Thrust  right  bell  sideward, — One!  Two! 


Fir,    115.  Anvil  stroke 
on  left  shoulder. 


FIG.  116.    Thrust  bell 
sideward. 


FIG.  117.     The  Chop. 


Thrusts  are  made  also  forward,  upward,  and  downward, 
either  with  hands  singly,  in  alternation,  or  both  at  once.  In  the 
forward,  upward,  and  downward  thrusts  the  arm  is  rotated  as 
above  described  in  the  sideward  thrust,  the  backs  of  the  hands 
being  turned  toward  each  other  in  the  three  cases. 

The  twist  of  the  arm  is  used  to  prevent  the  jerk  that  occurs 
at  the  end  of  the  thrust.  Thrusts  are  sometimes  given  without  it, 
the  thrust  terminating  in  the  same  posiion  of  the  bells  as  the  cor- 
responding swing. 


5.    TWISTING  OF 

Bells  are  raised  forward  with  the  elbows  bent  and  at  sides, 
bells  held  vertical.     On  the  first  count  the  bells  are  both  turned 


GERMAN  GYMNASTICS  227 

toward  the  R  so  that  the  thumb  end  of  the  L  bell  strikes  the  little 
finger  end  of  the  R  bell.  The  R  palm  is  turned  up,  and  the  L  palm 
down.  Bells  are  parallel.  This  exercise  is  used  mostly  as  a  varia- 
tion from  other  exercises,  and  is  used  in  drills. 

A  LESSON  SUITABLE:  FOR  A  PRIMARY  GRADE 

Exercise  i.  Strike  B  forward  and  std  f  r — (i)  pos — (2) — 
same  as  (i)  with  1  ft  (3) — pos  (4). 

Exercise  2.  B  on  sh  and  std  s  r  (i) — pos  (2) — same  as  (i) 
with  the  1  ft  (3) — pos  (4). 

Exercise  3.  B  s  (i) — B  under  arms,  elbows  high  (2) — B 
s  (3)— POS  (4). 

Exercise  4.  B  on  chest  (i) — B  s  (2) — strike  thumb  ends  of 
B  overhead  (3) — pos  (4). 

Exercise  5.  Jump  upward  landing  with  ft  in  std  pos  and  B 
square  (see  Fig.  114).  (i) — extend  B  sideward,  palms  up  (2)  — 
return  to  pos  of  (i).  (3) — jump  to  pos  (4). 

Exercise  6.  Walk  forward  3  steps  starting  with  1  ft  and 
bring  ft  together  on  4  (1-4).  Strike  B  forward,  both  ends  to- 
gether, 3  times  (5-7)  B  down  (8).  Walk  backward  3  steps, 
starting  1  ft,  and  bring  ft  together  (9-12),  strike  B  as  in  (5-8) 

(13-16). 

When  memorized  and  used  as  a  drill  take  each  exercise  either 
1 6  or  32  counts.  Music,  two-step,  either  working  on  each  count 
of  the  measure  or  on  the.  odd  counts,  according  to  the  rate  at 
which  the  exercise  is  to  be  taken. 

A  LESSON  SUITABLE  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  BOYS 

Exercise  I.  (i)  Bells  on  shldrs  std  s  r — (2) — thr  bells  u 
and  lunge  s  r — (3)  swing  bells  f  and  lunge  s  1 — (4)  pos. 

Exercise  2.  (i)  Bells  on  chest  std  f  r — (2)  thr  B  u  and 
lunge  f  r — (3)  strike  B  on  floor  in  front  of  r  ft — (4)  pos. 

Exercise  3.  Bells  on  shldrs  std  s  r — (2)  thr  bells  u  bd  Tr  d 
sw  bells  between  knees  (Fig.  117)  —  (3)  rse  Tr  and  sw  bells  u 
and  look  at  them — (4)  pos. 


228  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Exercise  4.  (i)  Bells  on  shldrs  std  s  r — (2)  thr  bells  f 
lunge  s  r — (3)  sw  bells  s  bd  Tr  r — (4)  pos. 

Exercise  5.  (i)  Raise  bells  s  bd  r  Knee  upward — (2)  touch 
r  Toe  b  and  strike  bells  under  1  knee — (3)  bd  r  Kn  upward  and 
strike  bells  overhead — (4)  pos. 

Exercise  6.  ( i )  Knees  deep  bd,  pi  B  on  floor  close  to  ft— 
(2)  jump  both  ft  backward,  so  the  body  is  in  pos  of  Fig.  40 — (3) 
turning  the  body  so  all  weight  is  on  1  hand  and  r  bell  straight  up- 
ward— (4)  replace  B  on  floor — (5)  raise  1  bell  straight  upwd— 
(6)  replace  B  on  floor — (7)  jump  ft  back  to  pos  (i) — (8)  pos. 

Exercise  7.  (i)  Sw  bell  s  step  pos  s  i — (2)  place  r  bell  on 
1  hip,  arm  behind  waist,  and  cross  step  pos  backward  r — (3)  re- 
verse of  (2),  coming  back  to  position  of  (i) — (4)  position. 

Exercise  8.  (i)  Bells  on  shoulders  r  K  rse — (2)  thrust  bells 
f  and  str  r  K  f,  foot  6  inches  from  floor — (3)  reverse  (2),  com- 
ing back  to  position  of  (i) — (4)  position. 

When  used  as  a  drill,  take  each  exercise  on  alternate  sides 
for  1 6  or  32  counts. 

WANDS 

THE  WANDS.  Wands  are  usually  of  wood,  from  24  to  30 
inches  in  length  and  from  one-half  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter; 
high  school  boys  can  use  steel  wands  of  the  same  size.  The  ends 
should  be  rounded.  The  wooden  sticks  can  be  purchased  from 
dealers  in  gymnasium  supplies  or  from  furniture  manufacturers, 
who  use  them  for  chair  rounds,  etc.  Wands  can  be  most  con- 
veniently kept  in  a  strong  box  from  8  to  12  inches  square  and 
20  inches  high,  with  a  heavy  and  broad  base. 

ELEMENTARY  WAND  MOVEMENTS 

Fundamental  position  is  usually  taken  with  the  wand  held  in 
both  hands  and  resting  against  the  front  of  the  thighs,  backs  of 
the  hands  to  the  front  (Fig.  118).  For  marching  the  wand  is 
usually  carried  in  the  manner  described  in  military  regulations  for 
carrying  arms.  A  few  movements  with  wands  require  it  to  be 
held  with  palms  forward. 


GERMAN  GYMNASTICS 


229 


i.     SWINGS  OF  WAND. 

(a)  Wand  forward, — Swing!    Fig.  119. 
horizontal.     Wand  downward, — Swing! 

(b)  Wand    forward    upward, — Swing! 
straight  and  vertical.     Wand  downward, — Swing! 

(c)  Wand  to  right  horizontal, — Swing!    Fig.  121.    Arms  at 
same  height.    Dowmvard, — Swing!    Same  to  left. 


Arms  straight  and 
Fig.     1 20.     Arms 


FIG.  118.   Starting  po- 
sition. 


FIG.  119.  Wand  for- 
ward and  touch-step 
forward. 


FIG.  1 20. 
ward. 


Wand  up- 


(d)  Wand  to  right  vertical, — Swing!  Right  arm  straight  up, 
left  arm  exactly  as  in  (c)  Fig.  122.  Same  to  left,  (e)  Aim 
forward  right, — Aim!  Wand  along  right  arm,  left  arm  as  in 
(c)  and  (d).  Same  to  left. 

Swings  are  also  taken  to  various  diagonal  positions. 

2.  POSITIONS  OF  WAND  INVOLVING  MOVEMENTS  OTHER 
THAN  SWINGS. 

(a)  Wand  on  chest, — Place!    Wand, — Down! 

(b)  While  wand  is  on  chest  we  may  command,  Wand  for- 
ward,— Thrust!  or  Wand  upward, — Thrust!  or  Wand  downward, 
—Thrust! 


230  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

(c)  While  wand  is  overhead  we  may  command,  Wand  on 
shoulders, — Place!     Then  we  may  command,  Wand  upward, — • 
Thrust!    The  wand  may  also  be  placed  on  shoulders  from  almost 
any  other  position. 

(d)  While  wand  is  forward  we  may  command,  Cross  right 
arm  over  left, — One!  Two!     Elbows  are  bent  to  a  right  angle. 
The  movement  may  be  reversed,  and  may  also  be  taken  from  fund- 
amental position  or  almost  any  other  position. 


FIG.    121.      Wand    to 
right  horizontal  and  FIG.    122.      Wand    to 

leg  raising.  right  vertical. 


A   LESSO'N   WITH   WANDS  SUITABLE  FOR  SEVENTH   GRADE  GIRLS 

Exercise  I.  (i)  Swing  wand  f  and  step  pos  f  r — (2)  swing 
wand  to  r  horizontal  and  touch  pos  s  r — (3)  return  to  pos  of  (i) 
—  (4)  pos. 

Exercise  2.  (i)  Wand  on  chest  and  touch  pos  f  r — (2) 
thrust  wand  f  and  fal  f  r — (3)  return  to  pos  of  (i) — (4)  pos. 

Exercise  3.  (i)  Swing  wand  f  and  touch  pos  b  r — (2)  aim 
f  r  and  kneel  on  r  Kn — (3)  return  to  pos  of  (i) — (4)  pos. 

Exercise  4.  (i)  Swing  wand  f  u  to  position  half  way  be- 
tween f  and  u  and  rse  leg  b — (2-7)  hold  this  pos — (8)  pos. 

Exercise  5.  (i)  Wand  on  chest  and  fal  f  r — (2)  sway  to 
reverse  fal  and  thrust  wand  f — (3)  return  to  pos  of  (i) — (4)  pos. 


GERMAN  GYMNASTICS 


231 


Exercise  6.  ( I )  Swing  wand  f  u  and  touch  step  s  r — (2)  fal  s 
r  and  let  go  of  wand  with  1  hand  swinging  wand  down  on  r  side 
striking  floor  and  place  free  hand  on  hip — (3)  return  to  pos  of 
(i)— (4)  pos. 

Take  each  exercise  on  alternate  sides,  when  used  as  a  drill, 
for  1 6  or  32  counts  and  group  the  class  by  having  them  in  open 
order  facing  the  end  of  the  lines  and  have  the  ones  start  to  the 
right  and  the  twos  to  the  left  in  each  exercise. 


FIG.  123.     Walk  position,  with 
hips  firm. 


FIG.  124.     Knee  flexion. 


FANCY  STEPS 
ELEMENTARY  MOVEMENTS 

(a)    (i)  Step  pos  f  1  (Fig.  119)  —  (2)  walk  pos  f  1  (Fig.  123) 
•(3  and  4)  repeat  (i)  and  (2)  with  r  foot.    Continue  in  series, 
(fr)   Same  as  (a),  using  step  pos  outward. 
(c)   Same  as  (a),  using  step  pos  sideward. 


232  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

(d)  Repeat  exercises   (a)   to  (r)  with  this  change:  swing 
the  leg  in  each  case  as  if  to  take  a  step  position,  but  do  not  touch 
the  floor  with  the  foot. 

(e)  Same  as  (a),  except  that  in  place  of  a  step  position  the 
foot  is  lifted  and  swung  in  front  of  the  other  knee,  the  knee  of 
the  moving  foot  being  flexed  to  a  right  angle  and  the  knee  turned 
outward. 

COMBINATIONS  OF  FANCY  STEPS 

(a)  Step  pos  sidewise  and  crosswise.    This  may  be  taken  in 
mazurka  time  in  the  following  manner : 

(i)  Step  pos  s  1 — (2)  step  pos  crosswise  1 — (3)  walk  pos  f  1 
(4,  5,  6)  repeat  with  other  foot;  it  may  be  taken  with  two-step 
time  in  the  following  manner : 

(i)  StepNpos  si — (2)  step  pos  crosswise  1 — (3)  repeat  (i)  — 
(4)  walk  pos  f  1 — (5  to  8)  repeat  with  other  foot. 

Since  the  two-step  time  is  much  more  likely  to  be  played,  the 
second  way  of  conducting  the  steps  is  much  more  important  than 
the  first. 

(b)  Step  position  forward  and  backward.    This  may  be  taken 
either  as  a  3  count  or  a  4  count  exercise,  as  shown  in  (a). 

(c)  The  change  step. 

(i)  Walk  pos  f  1  and  immediately  bring  r  foot  up  close  be- 
hind 1,  arch  of  r  foot  touching  1  heel — (2)  wk  pos  f  1 — (3)  repeat 
with  r  foot  ahead — (4)  repeat  (2)  with  r  foot. 

In  dancing  this  movement  is  taken  with  a  slide  of  the  foot 
along  the  floor;  in  military  marching  the  feet  are  lifted.  The 
former  method  can  be  used  on  a  smooth  floor,  but  the  latter  must 
be  used  where  the  floor  or  the  shoes  are  rough. 

(d)  Step  position  sideward,  crosswise,  and  change  step.  The 
step  positions  occupy  counts  one  and  two,  the  change  step  is  taken 
on  three  and  four ;  repeat  on  the  other  side. 

(e)  Step  position  forward  and  backward  and  change  step. 

(/)   Knee  flexion,  step  position  forward,  and  change  step. 

(g)  Repeat  (d),  (e),  and  (/),  using  three  running  steps  for- 
ward in  place  of  the  change  steps.  This  adds  more  life  and  vigor 
to  the  movement  and  makes  it  more  pleasing  to  children. 


GERMAN  GYMNASTICS  233 

(/O  The  "Rye"  step. 

(i)  Step  pos  outward — (2)  step  pos  crosswise — (3)  step  pos 
outward — (4)  step  pos  b — (5)  the  first  count  of  the  change 
step,  as  described  in  (c) — (6,  7)  repetitions  of  (5) — (8)  rest 
—(9  to.  16)  repeat  on  other  side. 

(i)    The  half  rocking  step. 

( i )  Step  pos  crosswise  1,  throwing  all  the  weight  on  the  1  foot 
and  raising  r  foot  backward — (2)  spring  on  r  foot  and  rse  1 
foot  f — continue  springing  on  the  1  and  r  foot  alternately, 
keeping  the  feet  in  the  same  relative  positions.  Practice  also 
with  r  foot  forward. 
(/)  The  rocking  step. 

(i)  Like  count  i  of  the  preceding — (2)  hop  on  1  and  sw  r 
foot  f — (3)  sw  r  foot  across  1,  throw  weight  upon  it,  and  sw 
1  foot  b — (4)  hop  on  r  foot  and  sw  I  foot  f.  Continue  in 
series. 

(k)   Mazurka  step.     (Mazurka  time  required.) 

(i)  Slide  r  foot  two  foot-lengths  to  r  with  heel  raised — (2) 
spring  lightly  from  both  feet  and  alight  on  1  where  r  foot  fin- 
ished the  slide,  with  r  foot  raised  s — (3)  hop  on  1  and  knee 
flexion  with  r — (4,  5,  6)  repeat  in  same  direction. 
Count  (2)  is  called  the  "Cut." 

(/)    Schottische,  simple  form. 

(i,  2,  3)  run  forward  1,  r,  1 — (4)  hop  1  and  swing  r  foot  f. 
Repeat  beginning  r  and  continue. 

(m)   Schottische. 

(1)  Slide  r  foot  two  foot-lengths  to  r  and  transfer  weight 
to  it. 

(2)  Cut,  as  in  second  count  of  mazurka  step. 

(3)  Hop  r  and  rse  1  slightly  close  behind  r,  knee  turned  out. 

(4)  Hop  r  and  hold  1  in  same  position  as  in  (3). 
(n)   Hop' Polka. 

(1)  Hop  1,  rse  r  as  in  (3)  of  schottische. 

(2)  Slide  r  two  foot-lengths,  transfer  weight  to  it. 

(3)  Cut,  replacing  r  with  1. 

(4)  Hop  r  and  rse  1  in  (3)  of  schottische. 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


MAZURKA. 


, 

i 
I 


-*-•-•- 


Pirouette. 

( i )  Place  r  foot  one  foot-length  to  r,  turning  it  to  r  and  rear 
— (2)  lift  1  foot,  cross  it  in  front  of  r,  close  to  it  and  past  it 
to  rear,  at  the  same  time  turning  on  the  balls  of  the  feet  in 
the  same  direction  until  a  complete  revolution  has  been  made. 
The  arch  of  the  1  foot  will  be  behind  the  heel  of  the  r  when 
the  turn  is  complete. 


GERMAN  GYMNASTICS 


235 


SIMPLE  FOLK  DANCES 

(i)  The  Shoemakers'  Dance. 

Formation :    A  double  circle,  partners  facing  each  other. 

Measure  (i).  Winding  thread.  With  arms  shoulder  high 
and  hands  as  if  holding  spool  and  thread,  wind  over  from  you 
quickly  three  times. 

Measure  (2).  Reverse  (i),  winding  over  toward  you  three 
times. 


7   t     *    fcjt 

^ 


SHOEMAKER'S  DANCE 

Measure  (3).  Pulling  thread  tight.  Jerk  elbows  back  twice, 
thus  separating  hands  as  in  tightening  thread. 

Measure  (4).    Clap  hands  three  times 

Measurer  (5  to  8).  Turn  facing  clockwise,  join  inside  hands 
and  skip  around  the  circle  8  skips,  beginning  1. 

Measures  (8  to  16).  Repeat  (i  to  8),  changing  (4)  to  imi- 
tate driving  pegs,  hammering  one  first  with  the  other. 

NOTE:: — The  Shoemaker's  Dance  is  a  simple  dance  for  chil- 
dren, and  should  be  carried  out  with  dash  and  spirit.  Parts  1-4 
make  up  the  first  exercise  for  teaching. 


236  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

THE  KLAPPDANS 
A  SWEDISH  FOLK  DANCE,  SUITABLE  FOR  PUPILS  OF  FOURTH  GRADE 

Formation  :  Pupils  in  double  line  around  the  room,  turned  so 
as  to  march  clockwise;  boys  occupy  the  inside  line,  girls  the  out- 
side ;  the  hand  and  foot  toward  the  partner  will  be  called  inside, 
and  the  other  outside;  partners  join  hands  and  place  outside 
hands  on  hip. 

Measures  (1-8).  The  Frolic,  (i,  2,  3)  Take  three  running 
steps,  starting  with  outside  foot — (4)  hop  on  outside  foot,  raising 
inside  foot  forward — (5  to  8) — repeat,  starting  with  inside  foot. 
Repeat  the  entire  movement  through  32  counts  finishing  facing 
each  other  with  hands  on  hips. 

Measures  (9-16).  The  Salutation.  (9)  Boys  make  a  stiff 
bow  to  partner,  bending  in  hips  only,  while  girls  make  a  stiff 
curtsy,  crossing  r  toe  behind  1  and  bending  knees,  trunk  erect — 
(10)  clap  hands  three  times  in  front  of  chest  in  the  time  of  two 
counts — (n)  repeat  (9),  girls  making  the  bow  and  boys  the 
curtsy — (12)  repeat  (10) — (13)  clap  r  hand  against  partner's  and 
hands  on  hips — (14)  clap  1  hand  against  partner's  and  hands  on 
hips — (15)  whirl  completely  around  to  1  on  1  foot,  clapping  r 
hand  against  partner's  as  the  whirl  begins — (16)  stamp  r,  1,  and  r, 
in  the  time  of  two  counts. 

Exercise  3.     Repeat  the  frolic. 

Exercise  4.  Repeat  the  salutation,  changing  10  as  follows: 
(10)  rest  r  elbow  in  1  palm  and  make  three  threatening  gestures 
toward  partner  by  shaking  the  r  hand  with  forefinger  uplifted  and 
head  inclined  toward  hand;  change  12  in  same  way,  using  the 
opposite  hands. 

THE  IRISH  LILT 
A  GYMNASTIC  DANCE,  SUITABLE  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  GIRLS 

Pupils  standing  in  regular  class  formation.  Music,  "The 
Irish  Washer  Woman." 

Exercise  i.  Hop  1  and  rse  r  leg  f — (2)  hop  1  and  sw  r  leg  s 
— (3)  spring  to  r  foot  and  rse  1  leg  b — (4)  hop  r  and  hold  1  leg 


GERMAN  GYMNASTICS 

KLAPPDANS. 


237 


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in  same  position — (5  to  12)  repeat  the  preceding  r  and  then  1— 
(13)  spring  upward  and  alight  in  stride  pos  s — (14)  spring  again 
and  alight  with  feet  together — (15)  hop  1  and  knee  flexion  r — 
( 16)  hop  r  and  rse  1  leg  f . 

Movements  16  to  16  make  w  hat  is  called  the  "Break,"  and 
this  is  the  finish  for  each  exercise  of  the  lilt. 

Exercise  2.  (i)  Hop  1  and  tap  r  toe  f — (2)  hop  1  and  strike 
r  heel  in  place  of  toe — (3)  hop  1  and  tap  r  toe  behind  1  heel — (4) 


238  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

hop  1  and  rse  r  leg  f — (5  to  12)  repeat  r  and  then  1 — (13  to  16) 
"break." 

Exercise  3.  (i)  Hop  1  ancl  rse  r  leg  s — (2)  hop  1  and  sw  r 
leg  f — (3)  hop  1  and  quickly  flex  and  extend  r  knee — (4)  repeat 
3 — (5  to  12)  repeat  r  and  then  1 — (13  to  16)  "break." 

Exercise  4.  (i)  Hop  1  and  tap  r  toe  s,  toeing  in — (2)  hop 
1  and  strike  r  heel  in  place  of  toe — (3)  hop  1  and  tap  r  toe  behind 
1  heel — (4)  hop  1  and  rse  r  leg  s — (5  to  12)  repeat  r  and  then  1 — 
(13  to  16)  "Break." 

Exercise  5.  (i)  Hop  1  and  tap  r  toe  f — (2)  hop  1  and  rse  r 
leg  f — (3)  spring  on  r,  crossing  it  over  in  front  of  1  and  rse  1  leg 
b — (4)  hop  1  and  rse  r  leg  f — (5  to  12)  repeat  r  and  then  1 — (13 
to  16)  "break." 

Exercise  6.  (i)  Hop  1  and  strike  r  heel  f — (2)  change  to 
same  pos  with  1  heel  f— (3  to  14)  change  r  and  1  alternately  as  in 
the  preceding — (15  and  16)  stamp  1,  r,  and  1  in  the  time  of  two 
counts. 


IRISH  WASHERWOMAN. 


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CHAPTER  XII. 


PLAY. 

There  is  a  famous  maxim  which  says  that  "It  is  what  a  pupil 
does  for  himself  and  not  what  someone  does  for  him  that  edu- 
cates." We  can  safely  go  farther  and  say  that  the  educative 
value  of  what  he  does  will  depend  on  how  much  vigor  he  puts 
into  it  and  how  long  he  keeps  at  it.  This  is  why  play  is  so  im- 
portant in  education.  Children  enter  into  their  play  with  so  much 
vim  and  enthusiasm  and  keep  at  it  so  many  hours  a  day  that  it 
does  more  than  anything  else  to  stimulate  and  guide  their  develop- 
ment,— physically,  mentally,  and  morally.  We  employ  play  in 
education  in  two  ways.  First,  we  try  to  bring  the  inspiring  atmos- 
phere of  play  into  the  regular  subjects  of  the  program  by  teach- 
ing in  such  a  way  as  to  create  interest.  Second,  we  teach,  either 
as  a  part  of  the  program  or  in  addition  to  it,  forms  of  play  that 
have  in  earlier  times  been  used  only  as  amusements  and  diversions 
and  that  have  not  been  supposed  to  be  at  all  related  to  education. 
It  is  with  the  latter  use  of  play,  the  employment  in  the  scheme  of 
education  of  forms  of  activity  hitherto  unused,  that  we  are  espe- 
cially interested  here. 

THE:  PLAY  PROBLEM. — How  can  we  justify  the  use  in  schools 
of  such  activities  as  story  plays,  song  plays,  tag  games,  and  ball 
games  ?  Is  the  need  a  new  one,  or  have  the  schools  always  been 
at  fault  in  this  matter?  Why  should  the  school  provide  play 
rather  than  the  home?  Will  not  the  young  always  play  enough 
anyway  if  they  are  left  to  themselves?  And  how  can  a  grown 
person  teach  a  child  anything  about  play?  These  questions  can 
be  best  answered  by  a  brief  account  of  the  experiences  through 
which  the  correct  answers  have  been  learned. 

FORMER  HABITS  OF  LIVING. — When  our  system  of  public 
schools  was  founded,  about  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  people  of 


PLAY  241 

the  United  States  lived  in  the  country  or  in  small  country  villages. 
Active  outdoor  life  and  varied  occupations  made  people  healthy 
and  strong.  The  natural  interest  of  children  in  the  activities  of 
farm  life  in  a  new  country,  with  a  chance  to  wander  freely  over 
the  fields  and  through  the  forests,  gave  the  play  impulse  free 
reign.  There  was  a  lack  of  opportunity  for  social  activities  and 
for  reading  and  study.  Schools  and  colleges  were  established  to 
meet  this  need.  The  school  was  kept  up  from  three  to  six  months 
in  the  year.  For  good  and  evident  reasons,  plays  and  games  had 
no  place  in  the  system. 

A  CHANGE:  IN  LIKE  HABITS. — The  last  few  decades  have  seen 
a  great  change  in  our  manner  of  living ;  greater  than  the  race  has 
ever  experienced  in  any  thousand  years  before.  Half  of  the  peo- 
ple now  live  in  cities  and  large  towns.  Industry  has  become  enor- 
mously specialized,  and  a  large  percentage  of  the  people  live  and 
work  indoors.  Social  life  is  prominent,  schools  and  colleges  are 
everywhere,  reading  matter  is  plentiful  and  cheap,  and  there  is 
much  more  leisure.  The  things  that  were  especially  lacking  in 
earlier  life  are  now  supplied  in  abundance,  but  we  lack  some  things 
that  were  not  appreciated  in  earlier  days  because  they  were  so 
easy  to  get.  Bodily  vigor  has  notably  declined.  By  improved 
methods  of  sanitation  and  the  control  of  some  communicable  dis- 
eases the  death  rate  of  persons  below  thirty-five  years  of  age  has 
been  lowered,  but  the  bodily  weakness  that  results  from  a  less 
active  life  indoors  has  made  chronic  illness  and  invalidism  more 
common,  and  the  death  rate  of  persons  above  thirty-five  has  in- 
creased. 

THE  EFFECT  ON  THE  PLAY  OF  CHILDREN. — The  school  year 
has  been  increased  to  ten  months  and  it  is  now  proposed  to  make 
it  twelve.  The  rush  to  town  and  city  renders  the  forms  of  play 
in  which  the  country  child  revels  practically  impossible.  The  town 
is  built  for  grown  folks,  with  streets,  houses,  walks  and  lawns  for 
their  convenience  and  pleasure.  If  the  children  could  play  with- 
out interfering  with  this  convenience  and  pleasure  most  of  the 
grown  folks  would  be  willing,  but  the  space  is  too  restricted  and 
forms  of  play  suited  to  such  restricted  space  are  not  well  known. 


242  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Land  is  too  costly  for  the  family  to  provide.  Most  of  the  play  is 
driven  to  the  street.  Here  ball  games,  the  most  useful  of  all  plays 
for  groups  of  children,  are  prohibited  because  they  result  in 
broken  windows  and  danger  and  inconvenience  to  the  people  on 
the  street.  Driven  from  legitimate  forms  of  play,  the  more  tract- 
able and  timid  children  put  up  with  less  vigorous  amusements  in- 
doors, while  the  more  aggressive  persist  in  forbidden  and  ques- 
tionable pleasures.  In  many  places  this  has  gone  as  far  as  the 
formation  of  gangs  organized  for  thieving  and  other  crimes.  There 
has  been  a  great  drop  in  the  physical  and  moral  status  of  children 
and  youth  due  to  the  removal  from  country  to  city.  To  relieve  the 
situation  playgrounds  are  now  being  provided  for  city  children, 
and  play  is  being  taught  in  the  schools. 

FREE  PXAY  IN  THE  CITY. — At  the  outset  there  was  strong  op- 
position to  the  plan.  Teachers  and  parents  insisted  that  "play  can- 
not be  taught."  Having  seen  and  experienced  only  the  forms  of 
play  used  by  the  isolated  country  child,  they  could  comprehend  no 
other  kind  that  would  be  of  value  and  stood  out  for  the  old-fash- 
ioned "free  play."  But  the  school  recess  soon  taught  teachers  and 
parents  that  free  play  has  its  dangers  in  the  city,  even  when  the 
teachers  maintain  a  police  regulation  over  it.  It  becomes  evident 
that  with  large  numbers  playing  in  a  narrowly  restricted  space,  in- 
dividual freedom  cannot  have  full  sway.  Some  one  is  sure  to 
exert  a  dominating  influence  over  the  play  of  a  group ;  if  it  is  not 
a  teacher,  it  is  sure  to  be  a  self-appointed  leader  from  the  more 
aggressive  players.  Unfortunately,  an  aggressive  disposition  is 
not  always  associated  with  broad  knowledge  and  good  judgment. 
The  result  is  that  "free  play"  at  recess  often  includes  unfair  play 
mingled  with  quarreling,  teasing  and  hazing  of  certain  pupils  or 
near-by  residents  or  passers-by,  breaking  of  windows,  and  other 
mischievous  pranks  of  all  kinds  and  degrees.  Play  at  recess  hav- 
ing proved  even  more  objectionable  educationally  in  many  cases 
than  the  .play  of  the  street,  the  recess  has  been  abolished  by  many 
school  boards. 

THE  KINDERGARTEN. — For  more  than  a  century  there  has 
been  an  occasional  teacher  who  has  used  directed  play  success- 


PI,AY  243 

fully  as  a  regular  part  of  the  school  program.  The  first  of  these  to 
achieve  such  notable  success  as  to  lead  to  its  adoption  by  others 
was  Friedrich  Froebel  (1782-1852),  the  founder  of  the  kinder- 
garten. Froebel  designed  a  unique  plan  for  the  education  of  chil- 
dren between  the  ages  of  three  and  six,  using  play  extensively. 
The  activities  of  the  children  here  are  largely  dramatic  imitations 
of  the  activities  of  nature  and  of  industrial  and  social  life. 
Through  his  trying  to  dramatize  activities  which  he  has  seen,  the 
child's  interest  in  them  and  his  desire  to  know  more  about  them 
are  stimulated.  Playing  together  in  groups  under  the  guidance  of 
trained  teachers,  the  children  learn  important  social  customs,  and, 
what  is  most  important  of  all,  they  learn  how  to  play  happily  with 
other  children.  Many  of  the  best  of  our  story  plays  and  song  plays 
originated  in  the  kindergarten. 

THE  SUPERVISED  PLAYGROUND. — In  the  playgrounds  which 
are  now  being  established  rapidly  in  all  of  our  cities  and  large 
towns,  children  of  all  school  ages  are  taught  a  variety  of  plays  and 
games  and  are  given  opportunity  to  play  them  under  supervision. 
On  account  of  the  problem  of  finding  sufficient  space  the  first 
playgrounds  have  been  most  often  opened  in  the  parks,  but,  if 
possible,  it  is  preferable  to  have  them  on  the  school  grounds. 
This  is  better  because  the  school  grounds  are  nearer  the  homes  of 
the  children  than  are  the  parks,  because  the  children  go  to  the 
school  anyway,  and  because  it  has  been  found  that  the  teachers 
succeed  better  than  others  in  supervising  and  teaching  play.  No 
new  movement  in  education  has  ever  met  with  such  instant  and 
general  favor.  The  teaching  of  play,  so  long  condemned  on  the- 
oretical grounds,  has  been  found  to  succeed  for  the  following 
reasons : 

( i)  System :  Time  and  place  for  various  kinds  of  play  can 
be  arranged  in  a  systematic  way.  This  has  several  important  ad- 
vantages. Many  more  children  can  play  at  the  same  time  in  a 
given  space  without  interfering  with  each  other's  play.  The  in- 
ability of  the  children  to  accomplish  this  for  themselves  is  one  of 
the  main  reasons  for  the  failure  of  free  play.  Boys  and  girls  of 
various  ages  can  be  sure  of  finding  their  favorite  form  of  play 


244  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

going  on  at  a  regular  hour.  Children  can  join  groups  of  their 
own  age  and  ability.  Plays  of  different  kinds  can  be  placed  at  the 
times  of  day  best  suited  to  them. 

(2)  Variety:     A  vastly  greater  variety   of   plays  can  be 
taught  than  the  children  could  ever  know  if  left  to  themselves. 
The  best  plays  of  all  places  and  races  have  been  studied  and  are 
described  in  books  that  are  within  reach  of  every  teacher.   What- 
ever is  best  suited  to  any  particular  group  of  children,  or  to  any 
particular  place,  time,  or  condition,  can  be  had.     New  and  im- 
proved forms  of  play  devised  by  ingenious  players  or  teachers  in 
New  York  or  Melbourne  can  be  used  the  next  month  in  Los 
Angeles  and  Berlin.    An  interesting  illustration  of  this  occurred 
a  few  summers  ago  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  where  one  of  the  favorite 
plays  of  the  summer  was  one  first  played  the  preceding  summer 
in  a  small  mining  town  in  central  Africa. 

(3)  Learning  How:     Players  can  be  taught  better  ways  to 
play  old  and  familiar  games.     This  kind  of  teaching,  which  has 
come  to  be  called  "coaching,"  often  succeeds  in  giving  a  game  a 
life-long  interest  which  without  it  would  be  attractive  only  as  long 
as  it  remained  a  novelty.    Many  of  the  best  games,  including  ten- 
nis,  hockey,   and  basketball,   require  a   considerable   degree   of 
knowledge  and  skill  before  one  is  apt  to  enjoy  them.     A  good 
teacher,  knowing  the  results  of  the  experience  of  all  the  best  play- 
ers since  the  game  began,  can  help  any  player  to  a  much  more 
rapid  advancement  than  he  could  ever  acquire  alone.     This  has 
great  moral  as  well  as  educational  value,  for  the  lack  of  ability  to 
succeed  by  good  playing  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  players 
sometimes  try  to  evade  the  rules. 

(4)  A  Square  Deal:     Fair  play  can  often  be  secured  by 
having  an  umpire  for  play  in  which  an  umpire  is  needed.     Some 
of  the  umpiring  can  be  done  by  the  teachers ;  pupils  can  be  trained 
to  become  good  umpires,  or  at  least  to  act  as  such  satisfactorily  for 
for  a  part  of  the  time.    Better  ideals  of  conduct  can  be  developed. 
Fair  play  at  all  times  is  necessary  to  the  success  of  all  games  and 
such  plays  as  involve  rivalry.     Here  is  another  source  of  failure 
in  free  play.    Players  rarely  appreciate  the  necessity  of  providing 


PLAY  245 

for  fair  play  beforehand.  The  decisions  being  made  by  the  play- 
ers, who  recognize  that  each  one  has  something  at  stake,  there  is 
apt  to  be  suspicion,  wrangling,  loss  of  time,  general  dissatisfaction 
with  the  play,  and  the  development  of  bad  habits.  If  there  is 
any  one  thing  that  should  be  emphasized  more  than  another  as 
preparation  for  citizenship  in  a  civilized  community,  it  is  the  habit 
of  dealing  fairly  wih  rivals.  When  games  are  played  all  the 
time  without  an  umpire  they  are  apt  to  lead  to  habitual  unfair- 
ness, because  each  side  suspects  the  other  and  justifies  its  own 
action  on  that  basis. 

THE  PLAYGROUND  SUCCESSFUL. — The  unqualified  success  of 
the  playgrounds  in  the  four  ways  just  mentioned  has  practically 
silenced  all  opposition  to  directed  play.  The  children  prefer  well 
directed  play  on  the  playground  to  free  play  on  the  street  or  on 
playgrounds  not  so  well  directed.  Bringing  together  in  an  in- 
formal way  so  many  children  from  all  nationalities  and  conditions 
of  life  is  doing  more  than  any  other  one  thing  to  Americanize  our 
great  foreign  population.  Children  who  have  played  on  the  play- 
ground also  play  outside  and  carry  on  group  games  without  direc- 
tion with  much  better  success  than  formerly.  The  physical  con- 
dition of  city  children  is  improving.  Arrests  of  children  are  much 
less  frequent,  and  in  some  districts  of  the  great  cities  where  juve- 
nile crime  was  formerly  as  its  worst,  the  police  force  has  been  cut 
to  half  that  required  before  the  playgrounds  were  established. 

NEED  OF  SPACE. — The  greatest  difficulty  in  providing  play- 
grounds is  the  expense  of  securing  enough  land.  School  grounds 
were  laid  out  in  most  of  our  cities  and  towns  before  this  want  was 
understood  and  the  space  is  much  too  small.  The  last  meeting 
of  the  National  Education  Association  expressed  itself  as  believ- 
ing that  every  schoolground  should  have  at  least  a  square  rod  of 
space  for  each  child  in  the  school.  This  means  an  acre  of  land 
for  every  one  hundred  sixty  pupils.  In  most  cities  so  great  an 
extent  of  space  for  play  is  now  impossible  for  the  schools  already 
built.  This  will  necessarily  keep  the  playgrounds  from  reaching 
the  highest  efficiency.  More  space  is  being  provided  for  new 
schools.  In  the  haste  to  provide  play  space,  now  that  the  need 


246  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

is  realized,  some  cities  have  put  all  available  funds  into  land  and 
equipment  and  have  opened  playgrounds  without  supervision.  This 
is  a  serious  mistake,  because  it  opens  the  way  for  all  the  evils  of 
the  discredited  "free  play"  of  the  street  along  with  some  new 
dangers  due  to  the  presence  of  such  apparatus  as  ladders,  swings, 
teeters,  slides,  and  wading  pools,  by  whose  improper  use  much 
harm  may  come.  All  kinds  of  bad  results,  including  the  worst 
moral  influences,  and  even  loss  of  life,  have  followed  from  this 
blunder  in  administration.  The  Playground  Association  of 
America  has  issued  through  its  field  secretaries  and  institute  work- 
ers the  following  warning:  "Equip  no  more  playgrounds  until 
you  have  provided  adequate  supervision  for  all  you  now  have." 

COMMERCIAL  PLAY. — We  can  judge  somewhat  of  how  fully 
the  need  of  play  is  supplied  by  noticing  the  number  of  commer- 
cialized amusements  and  the  extent  to  which  they  are  patronized. 
By  commercialized  amusements  is  meant  amusements  provided  in 
order  to  make  money  from  the  patrons.  These  include  not  only 
the  toys  and  games  you  buy  and  take  home,  but  more  especially 
the  amusements  you  can  go  and  enjoy  by  paying  an  admission  fee. 
In  this  class  are  baseball  parks,  bowling  alleys,  carnivals,  circuses, 
dance  halls,  excursion  boats,  fairs,  gambling  dens,  horse  races, 
moving  picture  shows,  music  halls,  opium  joints,  pool  rooms,  roof 
gardens,  saloons,  scenic  railways,  skating  rinks,  theaters,  etc.  The 
sums  spent  annually  by  the  people  of  our  cities  in  these  ways  are 
enormous,  exceeding  many  times  over  all  that  is  spent  for  schools, 
playgrounds,  streets,  walks,  fire  protection,  city  government,  and 
all  other  public  expenditures  met  by  taxation.  It  is  very  evident 
that  the  play  facilities  thus  far  provided  in  public  parks  and  play- 
grounds do  not  satisfy  the  play  impulses  of  the  population. 

RECREATION  CENTERS. — Just  as  rapidly  as  it  can  be  seen  how 
and  where  the  playground  falls  short  of  meeting  the  need,  it  is 
now  being  supplemented  by  what  is  called  a  "recreation  center." 
This  is  a  building,  erected  at  public  expense  and  designed  to  fur- 
nish an  opportunity  for  kinds  of  play  not  suited  to  the  playg  round, 
and  at  times  when  the  playground  is  not  at  its  best, — usually  in 
the  evening,  in  bad  weather,  and  especially  during  the  winter. 


PLAY  247 

The  building  is  preferably  located  on  the  playground,  and  is  apt 
to  contain  one  or  two  gymnasiums,  baths,  swimming  pools,  a  li- 
brary and  reading  room,  a  lunch  room,  a  kindergarten,  rooms  that 
can  be  used  for  lectures  and  concerts,  mothers'  meetings,  social 
clubs,  literary  societies  and  amateur  theatricals,  and  special  rooms 
to  meet  special  local  needs.  Any  club,  society  or  group  in  the 
neighborhood  can  hold  parties  and  dances  in  the  gymnasium,  or 
meetings  of  various  kinds  in  rooms  suitable  for  them,  by  engaging 
such  rooms  beforehand.  Classes  in  folk  dancing  and  recreative 
gymnastics  and  games  are  taught.  The  teachers  encourage  all 
forms  of  wholesome  recreation  and  manage  them  for  the  best 
interests  of  all.  Many  grown  people  and  younger  persons  who 
cannot  profit  from  the  playground  are  accommodated  here  instead 
of  being  obliged  to  patronize  the  commercialized  amusements. 
School  buildings  are  now  coming  into  use  as  recreation  centers, 
and  this  use  of  them  is  proving  so  important  that  it  is  bringing 
about  changes  in  the  construction  of  new  school  buildings  so  as 
to  make  them  more  useful. 

REFORMING  PLAY  HABITS. — In  spite  of  all  that  is  being  done, 
there  are  still  many  who  engage  in  forms  of  play  that  destroy 
the  health  and  character  of  the  players.  Some  of  these,  such  as 
gambling,  sexual  vice,  and  various  drug  habits,  are  in  themselves 
vicious  and  harmful.  In  other  cases,  the  most  common  of  which 
is  the  commercial  dance  hall,  the  harm  comes  chiefly  from  the  way 
the  place  is  managed.  Laws  regulating  dance  halls  and  the  com- 
petition of  the  recreation  centers  are  improving  these  conditions. 
Reform  began  many  years  ago  in  attempts  to  suppress  the  worst 
forms  of  vicious  play  by  prohibitive  laws.  This  method  has  not 
been  wholly  successful.  Just  as  a  thirsty  man  will  drink  from  a 
disease  laden  pond  if  he  can  find  nothing  better,  so  men  choose 
vices  as  amusements,  not  because  they  are  naturally  vicious,  but 
because  they  crave  play  and  have  learned  no  better  form.  The 
first  and  most  important  step  in  reforming  the  play  habits  of  a 
community  is  to  teach  everyone  early  in  life  how  to  play  a  lot 
of  good  wholesome  games.  Such  play  is  more  fun  than  vice, 
unless  a  bad  taste  has  been  cultivated.  By  supplying  something 


248  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

better  in  the  place  of  what  is  prohibited,  the  law  may  be  made 
more  effective  than  it  has  been  heretofore  in  suppressing  these 
unnecessary  causes  of  physical  and  moral  disease. 

PLAY  AMONG  EDUCATED  PEOPLE. — A  fair  acquaintance  with 
a  variety  of  good  vigorous  forms  of  recreation  cannot  fail  to 
raise  the  standard  of  health  and  physique  among  our  well  edu- 
cated middle-class  people.  These  people  have,  in  the  main,  em- 
ployments calling  for  much  nervous  force  and  little  bodily  exer- 
cise ;  and  their  play  habits,  while  not  including  much  that  is  im- 
moral or  positively  harmful,  are  much  too  quiet  to  give  a  fair 
degree  of  bodily  strength.  "Organized  idleness  with  thrills"  is 
an  apt  phrase  to  describe  the  typical  play  activities  of  this  class. 
A  play  program  consisting  of  banquets,  calls,  dinners,  dances, 
lectures,  luncheons,  musicales,  receptions,  theaters  and  the  like 
needs  to  be  toned  up  by  a  sprinkling  of  baseball,  coasting,  canoe- 
ing, cross-country  walking,  golf,  horseback  riding,  rowing,  skat- 
ing, ski-running,  swimming,  tennis,  etc.  A  moderate  skill  and 
familiarity  in  such  recreations  as  these  go  far  to  keep  up  the 
enjoyment  of  vigorous  exercise  as  age  advances,  and  so  help  to 
make  men  and  women  more  efficient,  postponing  until  old  age, 
where  it  belongs  if  anywhere,  the  fat  and  misshapen  stage  of 
existence  that  we  too  often  see  in  people  of  middle  life.  This  is 
another  good  reason  for  the  teaching  of  the  best  kind  of  play. 

COLLEGE  ATHLETICS. — American  college  students  have  main- 
tained for  themselves  a  system  of  partially  directed  play  for 
twenty  years  or  more.  The  system  is  known  by  the  name  "college 
athletics,"  and  has  been  imitated  in  most  of  the  high  schools  of 
the  country.  At  first  the  play  was  not  directed  in  any  way,  but 
gradually  the  colleges  and  such  high  schools  as  can  afford  it  have 
followed  the  example  of  the  larger  universities  in  employing  a 
"coach"  to  instruct  the  players  in  the  details  of  play,  and  the 
teachers  have  in  most  places  assumed  some  direction  over  its 
management.  The  original  purpose  of  the  play  here  was  similar 
to  that  of  the  modern  playground, — to  provide  students  with  the 
best  kind  of  recreation  but  from  the  start  the  system  has  failed 
in  large  measure  to  accomplish  its  object. 


PI.AY  249 

IN  THE  SYSTEM. — The  cause  of  this  failure  is  pri- 
marily the  necessity  of  maintaining  itself  financially.  Those  who 
furnish  the  funds  to  maintain  the  academic  features  of  college  life 
have  not  seen  their  way  to  do  the  same  for  athletics,  and  so  the 
students  have  been  obliged  to  give  up  the  play  or  finance  it  them- 
selves. In  casting  about  for  a  way  to  do  this  they  tried  and 
adopted  the  methods  of  the  commercial  baseball  leagues.  They 
soon  found  that  to  make  money  from  gate  receipts  of  games  it 
is  important  to  have  a  winning  team,  and  ever  since  that  day  the 
winning  of  games,  and  not  the  original  purpose,  has  been  the  chief 
aim  of  college  athletics.  The  system  supports  itself,  and  also  aids 
in  stimulating  school  and  college  spirit  and  loyalty.  Incidentally 
it  gives  the  students  a  chance  to  see  wholesome  forms  of  play,  if 
not  to  take  part  in  them,  but  college  and  high  school  students 
need  to  form  good  play  habits  quite  as  much  as  other  people.  This 
calls  for  the  application  of  playground  methods  and  purposes  ta 
supplement  the  athletic  system,  which  provides  vigorous  play  only 
for  the  few  who  need  it  least.  The  commercial  basis  of  the  sys- 
tem is  also  unfortunate  in  giving  the  students  an  exaggerated 
idea  of  the  importance  of  winning  without  putting  enough  em- 
phasis on  fair  play  and  considerate  treatment  of  opponents.  Such 
training  tends  to  develop  college  men  into  politicians  rather  than 
into  statesmen.  In  many  institutions  the  authorities  have  now 
become  interested  in  providing  more  students  a  chance  for  the 
benefits  of  athletic  training,  and  a  few  are  already  teaching  games 
and  sports  to  the  entire  student  body.  Experience  shows  that  it 
is  opportunity  to  play  and  instruction  in  how  to  play  that  are 
needed  to  stimulate  the  play  impulse;  the  excessive  stimulation 
that  is  given  the  college  athletic  team  by  coach  and  spectators  is 
not  necessary. 

BETTER  PLAY  FOR  ALL. — It  is  frequently  said  of  the  Ameri- 
can people  that  they  do  not  know  how  to  play,  and  the  charge 
seems  to  be  altogether  too  true.  We  have  been  too  prone  to  look 
upon  our  play  as  a  dessert, — something  to  tickle  the  palate, — to 
be  taken  or  not  according  to  convenience  and  mood,  and  to  be 
chosen  by  no  better  standards  than  those  of  whim  and  pocket 


250  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

book.  It  is  time  Americans  were  awakened  to  the  full  importance 
of  the  educative  force  of  play  habits.  Play  of  the  wrong  sort  has 
destroyed  individuals,  nations  and  races,  when  a  better  type  of 
play  would  have  raised  them  to  a  greater  eminence  instead.  As 
leisure  and  wealth  increase,  as  they  are  rapidly  doing,  the  amount 
of  play  must  increase  and  its  good  effects  be  produced  in  pro- 
portion. Commercialized  play,  with  its  large  percentage  of  amuse- 
ments that  are  useless  and  vicious,  stands  waiting  to  supply  every 
demand  and  to  pocket  the  profits.  This  makes  it  imperative  for 
the  future  welfare  of  the  nation  and  the  race  that  wholesome  play 
shall  be  taught  as  an  essential  feature  of  education  to  all  coming 
generations.  Such  a  plan  calls  for  room  and  equipment  far  be- 
yond the  ability  of  the  home  to  supply.  Public  spirit  must  inspire 
the  movement  and  public  action  carry  it  to  full  realization. 

HOW  AGE  AND  SEX  INFLUENCE  PLAY 

Each  age  and  sex  has  its  special  play  interests.  The  boy  of 
three  plays  horse,  the  boy  of  six  plays  tag,  at  twelve  he  plays  scrub, 
at  sixteen  he  plays  baseball,  at  twenty-four  he  takes  his  lady  friend 
driving,  at  thirty-five  he  plays  with  his  lawn  and  his  garden,  and 
so  on.  The  girl  in  like  rotation  takes  up  dolls,  tag,  ball,  music, 
fancy  work,  love,  house  decorations,  the  club,  etc.  One  interest- 
ing feature  of  these  changes  of  interest  is  the  remarkable  com- 
pleteness of  the  change.  The  boy  who  has  played  horse  most 
enthusiastically  of  all  his  companions  will  in  a  year  or  two  come 
to  have  the  most  unbounded  contempt  for  any  boy  who  can  be  so 
foolish  as  to  play  horse.  Probably  the  reason  why  adults  seldom 
speak  of  their  own  play  by  that  name  is  because  of  the  feeling  that 
the  plays  of  children  are  so  far  beneath  them.  The  same  thing 
will  go  far  to  explain  why  adults  have  been  so  slow  to  recognize 
the  educational  value  of  the  play  of  children. 

The  special  characteristics  and  interests  of  the  different  ages 
may  be  briefly  states  as  follows : 

INFANCY  :  FROM  BIRTH  TO  3  YEARS. — During  this  period  the 
child  grows  more  rapidly  than  at  any  other  time,  both  proportion- 


PLAY  251 

ately  and  in  actual  weight  and  height.  The  bodily  movements  are 
chiefly  large  and  simple  ones,  done  with  little  sustained  interest  or 
attention.  The  great  incentive  to  action  seems  to  be  the  instinctive 
desire  for  free  activity,  the  variety  of  the  movements  rather  than 
heir  results  being  the  main  source  of  pleasure.  Fatigue  comes  on 
quickly,  yet  by  constantly  varying  his  exercise  the  infant  is  able 
to  keep  up  almost  incessant  activity.*  f 

THE  AGE  OF  DRAMATIC  IMITATION  :  FROM  3  TO  6  YEARS. — 
After  the  period  of  infancy  there  is  a  period  lasting  until  the  age 
of  about  ten  years  when  growth  is  nearly  uniform  from  year  to 
year;  four  pounds  in  weight  and  two  inches  in  height.  During 
the  first  part  of  this  time,  up  to  about  six  years  of  age,  children 
are  especially  interested  in  imitating  what  they  see  others  do, 
giving  the  period  the  name  of  the  "age  of  imitation,"  or  the  "dra- 
matic age."  Occupations  of  the  household,  the  farm,  the  store, 
the  railroad,  and  the  street,  are  imitated  with  great  interest  and 
enthusiasm,  as  are  also  the  plays  of  older  children  and  the  activi- 
ties of  animals.  Much  imagination  is  involved,  and  the  play  is 
often  a  make-believe  of  the  most  realistic  kind.  Children  of  this 
age  are  eager  to  take  almost  any  exercises  of  the  simpler  sort 
given  by  imitation,  but  these  are  not  copied  exactly  and  are  taken 
with  most  interest  and  enthusiasm  when  there  is  a  dramatization 
of  some  activity  of  real  life  that  they  have  seen.  The  children 
like  to  run  like  horses,  fly  like  birds,  and  imitate  various  occupa- 
tions. The  story  plays  are  among  the  best  exercises  that  can  be 
chosen  for  children  of  this  age. 

THE  AGE  OF  SELF-ASSERTION  :  FROM  6  TO  12  YEARS. — From 
imitation  of  others  the  chief  interest  of  the  child  now  turns  to  the 
doing  of  real  things  for  himself,  with  great  pride  in  what  he  can 
do ;  he  often  takes  a  great  dislike  to  the  make-believe  he  has  hith- 
erto enjoyed  so  much,  and  asserts  his  actual  self,  so  that  the  period 
has  received  the  name  of  the  "age  of  self-assertion."  This  is  also 


*  Johnson :     Education  by  Plays  and  Games,  chapter  3. 

t  Oppenheim :    The  Development  of  the  Child,  chapters  2  and  3. 


252  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

the  age  of  most  rapid  gain  in  muscular  control.  The  interest  and 
ability  are  not  so  much  in  the  line  of  minute  and  exact  things,  like 
writing  and  sewing,  although  these  things  can  be  done  much  better 
than  before,  but  rather  in  feats  of  strength  and  skill,  such  as  run- 
ning, jumping,  throwing,  climbing,  and  the  like.  While  great 
precision  of  movement  is  not  yet  possible,  still  this  is  the  time 
when  practice  that  will  later  demand  the  highest  degree  of  skill, 
as  in  playing  the  piano,  must  be  begun  if  the  best  grade  of  excel- 
lence in  it  is  ever  to  be  attained.  Anyone  who  is  to  become  expert 
as  a  ball  player,  skater,  pianist,  etc.,  must  begin  at  this  time  or  he 
will  be  handicapped  ever  afterwards.  This  is  the  main  reason 
why  girls  cannot  usually  perform  such  acts  as  throwing,  catching 
and  batting  accurately  or  gracefully.  The  average  boy  of  ten 
practices  these  acts  a  thousand  times  to  the  girl's  one,  and  has 
ability  in  proportion.  An  occasional  girl  can  throw  and  catch  a 
ball  as  well  as  boys  because  she  has  practiced  as  much  and  has  in 
that  way  developed  the  nervous  machinery  of  coordination ;  boys 
usually  throw  with  the  left  hand  as  poorly  and  awkwardly  as  girls 
do  with  the  right, — in  fact,  with  the  same  style  of  motion.  One 
who  has  passed  the  golden  period  of  learning  coordinations  and 
has  not  learned  them  is  necessarily  less  able  and  less  inclined  to 
practice  plays  involving  active  movement. 

The  exercises  most  attractive  at  this  age  are  the  games  in 
which  there  is  a  good  deal  of  vigorous  exertion  and  skill  and  where 
the  individual  player  is  prominent.  The  games  in  which  one 
player  is  "It"  are  popular  here,  because  the  one  who  is  "It"  is  in 
competition  with  all  the  others  and  holds  a  conspicuous  place. 
Boys  of  this  age  imitate  the  games  of  older  players,  not  in  any 
make-believe  way,  but  in  place  of  team-play  there  is  emphasis  on 
individual  excellence.  For  example,  baseball  is  very  popular,  but 
the  game  played  most  often  is  not  a  team  game,  but  one  in  which 
each  "works  up"  to  the  highest  positions  and  holds  his  place  at 
bat,  if  skilfull  enough,  even  when  the  others  batting  with  him  are 
put  out.  There  is  still  interest  in  dramatic  play,  providing,  in  the 
case  of  boys,  there  is  something  warlike  or  heroic  about  it,  as  in 
playing  Indians  or  knights,  and  in  military  drill.  Boys  of  this 


PI,AY  253 

age  enjoy  gymnastic  exercises  if  they  are  vigorous  and  rather 
difficult,  and  if  they  are  not  given  too  much. 

During  this  period  the  girls  usually  fall  behind  the  boys  in 
strength  and  skill,  but  this  is  chiefly  due  to  the  social  influences 
which  keep  the  girl  from  playing  outdoors  as  actively  and  freely 
as  boys  do ;  in  spite  of  this  restraint  some  girls  are  fully  equal  to 
the  boys  in  physical  ability  at  this  age.  The  girls  prefer  the  same 
kind  of  games,  but  in  general  they  are  inclined  to  work  with  less 
vigor  and  to  have  more  interest  in  exercises  that  look  better  and 
develop  ease  of  movement  rather  than  strength.  Above  the  fourth 
grade  the  games  and  gymnastics  are  usually  more  satisfactory  if 
the  boys  and  girls  are  separate,  but  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
until  the  seventh.* 

ADOLESCENCE. — At  about  eleven,  girls  begin  another  period  of 
rapid  growth  lasting  five  or  six  years ;  the  boys  begin  this  period 
from  one  to  two  years  later.  This  is  the  period  in  which  each  sex 
gradually  takes  on  the  form  and  characteristics  of  adult  life.  It 
has  been  called  the  "age  of  loyalty,"  because  the  interest  in  exer- 
cise centers  about  team  games  rather  than  individual  play ;  the 
qualities  most  useful  in  civilized  life  are  now  beginning  to  take 
the  place  of  those  most  useful  in  savage  life.  The  social  element 
in  play  now  becomes  more  prominent,  and  various  forms  of  purely 
social  play  appear.  Among  these  are  "mating"  plays,  which  lead 
to  and  accompany  courtship  and  marriage. 

The  growth  in  this  period  includes  a  great  increase  in  the 
bulk  of  the  muscular  tissues.  In  connection  with  this,  and  prob- 
ably related  to  it,  is  a  tendency  to  more  severe  effort  than  before, 
but  not  to  long  sustained  effort ;  at  the  same  time  the  interest  is 
gradually  more  and  more  sustained  along  certain  lines.  Boys  and 
girls  now  require  different  exercises ;  those  of  the  boys  include  the 
athletic  outdoor  games,  such  as  baseball,  football,  etc.,  and  com- 
petitive exercises  of  all  kinds ;  in  gymnastic  work  the  German 
exercises  on  apparatus  are  most  enjoyed;  class  exercises  are  able 


Lee :     Playground  Education.    Educational  Review.  Vol.  22,  page  449. 


254  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

to  hold  the  interest  for  a  time  if  there  is  a  conscious  improvement 
in  some  line  of  skill,  as  in  club  swinging,  wand  exercises,  or  even 
posture  work ;  always  providing  there  is  a  definite  course  leading 
to  a  certain  requirement  of  excellence,  the  course  ending  when 
the  work  has  been  done  correctly.  Boys  of  this  age  especially 
dislike  an  indefinite  series  of  lessons  that  lead  nowhere  and  have 
no  apparent  reason  or  end,  for  they  do  not  appreciate  the  esthetic 
element. 

During  adolescence  the  girls  are  fond  of  many  games,  but 
they  do  not  play  them  with  the  same  vigor  as  the  boys,  partly  be- 
cause of  the  restrictions  imposed  by  society.  Exercises  like  tennis, 
that  can  be  taken  in  a  girl's  style  of  dress,  are  popular,  but  indoor 
games,  such  as  basketball  and  the  simpler  games  leading  to  it,  and 
class  exercises  with  musical  accompaniment  are  quite  as  well 
liked.  Of  all  exercises  the  gymnastic  dances  are  the  most  popular, 
although  other  kinds  of  class  gymnastics  are  much  more  popular 
with  girls  than  with  boys. 

On  account  of  the  girls'  beginning  the  period  of  rapid  growth 
sooner  than  the  boys  there  is  a  time  when  the  girls  are  larger  than 
the  boys  of  the  same  age ;  the  more  active  of  the  girls  often  excel 
the  average  boy  in  bodily  exercises  at  this  time.  Later,  the  boys, 
as  they  reach  the  time  of  most  rapid  growth,  pass  the  girls  and  are 
afterwards  taller  and  heavier. 

The  danger  from  exercise  in  this  period  lies  chiefly  in  the 
direction  of  too  long  continued  effort.  Severe  exertion  is  not  so 
apt  to  be  injurious  as  is  in  earlier  or  later  life,  unless  too  much 
prolonged.  For  example,  it  is  not  football,  but  long  distance  run- 
ning that  is  most  injurious  for  high  school  boys ;  it  is  not  so  much 
the  severity  of  games  as  their  length  without  interruption.  This 
makes  basketball  especially  severe  for  boys  of  this  age ;  the  girls' 
game  rightly  has  modifications  that  prevent  the  individual  players 
from  too  long  continuous  effort. 

Under  present  conditions  in  school  and  college  the  boys  and 
girls  of  this  age  do  not  have  sufficient  encouragement  to  engage 
in  active  games  and  sports.  Space  and  equipment  are  usually  not 
provided  except  for  the  few  best  athletes,  the  winning  of  a  few 


PI,AY  255 

victories  being  considered  of  more  importance  than  the  develop- 
ment of  the  physique  of  the  mass  of  students. 

T  HE  AGE  OF  MATURITY. — After  reaching  full  growth,  which 
is  usually  completed  in  women  at  18  and  in  men  at  21,  we  have 
in  the  next  15  or  20  years  the  prime  of  life.  Here  is  the  age  of 
greatest  physical  ability.  Practically  all  the  world's  athletic  rec- 
ords are  made  by  men  in  this  period  of  life.  The  possibilities  of 
bodily  development,  in  strength,  speed,  endurance,  and  skill,  are 
so  far  beyond  average  attainment  that  they  form  one  of  the  most 
attractive  features  of  exhibitions  given  on  the  stage.  The  marvels 
of  human  strength  and  skill  exhibited  by  ball  players,  jugglers, 
trick  riders,  acrobats,  and  strong  men  are  among  the  greatest 
wonders  of  the  world.  And  yet  the  average  man  is  conspicuously 
lacking  in  all  these  physical  qualities,  and  the  average  woman  still 
more  so,  because  these  powers  have  not  been  developed.  Strength 
tests  of  600  men  and  600  women,  taken  at  the  Battle  Creek  Sani- 
tarium, show  that  the  women  were  not  quite  half  as  strong  as  the 
men.  Tests  made  at  the  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics 
indicate  that  women  students  have  less  than  one-fourth  the  work- 
ing efficiency  of  men,  in  athletic  games. 

The  difference  in  the  physical  ability  of  men  and  women  is 
due  to  a  small  extent  to  heredity,  but  probably  much  more  to 
habits  of  forms  of  adult  play  into  which  money  is  poured  freely. 
The  equipment  for  the  play  of  the  grown-up,  including  houses, 
furniture,  musical  instruments,  silver,  cut  glass  and  china,  horses 
and  carriages,  automobiles,  boats,  costumes,  jewelry,  flowers, 
books,  newspapers,  magazines,  and  scores  of  other  things,  should 
be  kept  in  mind  when  we  are  considering  the  expense  of  neces- 
sary equipment  for  the  play  of  children. 

It  is  worth  noticing  in  this  connection  that  adults  of  primitive 
races,  especially  the  men,  always  incline  to  choose  amusements 
that  are  degrading  and  demoralizing,  in  place  of  the  educative 
plays  of  the  young.  Gambling  and  the  use  of  intoxicants  are  the 
most  universal  of  these  vices,  and  in  spite  of  intelligent  public 
opinion  and  prohibitive  laws  many  men  among  civilized  nations 
fall  victims  to  them.  A  better  acquaintance  with  outdoor  games 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

and  a  better  opportunity  to  play  them  would  go  far  to  keep  young 
men  from  falling  into  habits  of  vice  and  dissipation.  With  the 
majority  of  women  the  purely  social  plays  predominate,  such  as 
conversation,  gossip,  calls,  teas,  literary  clubs,  musicales,  recep- 
tions, etc. 

Occasionally  a  man  or  woman  is  seen  who  keeps  up  the  prac- 
tice of  active  plays  and  games  with  all  the  zest  of  childhood,  and 
as  a  result  these  people  retain  a  standard  of  health  and  vigor  much 
above  the  average.  The  lack  of  interest  of  most  adults  of  the 
present  time  in  the  more  healthful  forms  of  play  is  no  doubt  due 
in  part  at  least  to  the  fact  that  as  children  thev  lacked  opportunity 
to  become  expert  enough  in  them  to  make  them  permanently  in- 
teresting. The  school  should  develop  the  powers  and  interests 
that  lead  to  intelligent  and  healthful  play  as  well  as  those  leading 
to  higher  occupations  and  better  citizenship.  All  that  can  be  done 
to  interest  younger  boys  and  girls  in  the  more  active  and  whole- 
some type  of  plav  will  help  to  prevent  in  their  more  mature  years 
the  low  grade  of  physique  that  probably  will  never  be  remedied 
for  the  adults  of  the  present  generation.* 

THE:  AGE  OF  DECLINE:. — Following  the  age  of  maturity,  be- 
ginning at  widely  varying  times,  is  the  period  of  gradually  failing 
powers.  How  early  this  will  come  on  and  how  rapidly  it  will 
approach  its  end  in  death  depends  on  the  conditions  and  habits  of 
life  and  on  the  grade  of  physique  that  has  been  developed  during 
preceding  years.  Workers  in  some  kinds  of  factories  are  often 
old  and  infirm  at  forty ;  workers  on  the  farm  often  live  well  past 
ninety.  This  is  another  strong  reason  for  providing  for  the  bodily 
development  of  young  people  in  school  and  out  of  it. 

After  the  time  for  the  most  strenuous  games  has  passed,  men 
and  women  often  enjoy  and  profit  from  active  outdoor  games  that 
are  more  moderate  in  their  requirements.  Among  these  are  golf, 
lawn  bowling,  archery,  croquet,  curling,  and  a  few  others.* 


*  Sargent:     Health,  Strength,  and  Power,  chapter  XI  nnd  XII. 


PLAY 


257 


CHART  OF  PLAY  ACTIVITIES 


locomotion 


use  of  the  arms-< 


walking 


running 


jumping 


dancing 


swimming 


climbing 


with  modified 


with  a  vehicle 


throwing 


striking,  with 


j  excursion  on  foot 
1  marching 

f  sprinting 
I  running 
1  hopping 
L  skipping 

fhigh 
J  broad 
1  jumping  rope 

[_  vaulting 


gymnastic 
social 


folk  dances 
classic  dances 
round  dances 
square  dances 


fice  skates 

roller  skates 
shoes  S  snow  shoes 
skiis 

L  stilts 

["  swinging 
teetering 
J  coasting 
1  rowing 

paddling 
(,  bicycling 

(tossing 
pitching 
rolling 
putting 
slinging 
shooting 

"hand 

foot 

bat 

racket 

hockey 

mallet 
^.  crosse 


258 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING 


CHART  OF  PLAY  INTERESTS 


simple  activity 


imitation 


experimenting 


constructive 


competitive 


f  throw  and  catch 
-<  climbing 
t.  swimming 

simple 


dramatic 


f  imitating  occupations 
J  imitating  ways  of  living 
[_  follow  the  leader 

going  to  Boston 

story  plays 

amateur  theatricals 

dancing  (certain  forms) 


L 


I"  exploring 
J  collecting 
L  nature  study 

f~  building  with  blocks 

modeling  in  clay 
J  paper  cutting  and  folding 

drawing  and  painting 
L carpentry 

f  track  and  field  sports 
contests  •<  golf 

L  bowling 
r  Lawn  bowls 
intermediate  group    •<  quoits 


curling 


games  - 


elementary- 


goal 
tag 


bat  and  ball 


puss  in  the  corner 

marching  to  Jerusalem 

cross  tag 

pom  pom  pullaway 
f  tennis 
I    hockey 
1    football 
I  baseball 


PLAYS  AND  GAMES  SUITABLE  FOR  A  FIRST  GRADE 

STORY  PLAYS 
BUILDING  BON-FIRE 

1.  Wind  blows  leaves  from  trees.     Arms  overhead  fall  slowly 

to  side  with  fingers  fluttering. 

2.  Rake  up  leaves. 

3.  Take  armfuls  and  put  in  cart. 


PLAY  259 

4.  Run  with  it  to  bon-fire.    Running  around  room.    Hands  be- 

hind back  as  if  dragging  cart.    Empty  cart  on  desk. 

5.  Blow  fire  to  make  it  go.    Fire  is  on  desk.     Stoop,  take  deep 

breath  and  blow  across  desk,. facing  side  of  room. 

6.  All  skip  around  fire.    Two  rows  around  one  row  of  desks. 

7.  Breathe  in  fresh  air. 

A  PLAY  IN  THE;  SNOW 

1.  All  are  sleepy.    Heads  on  desks. 

2.  Wake  up  and  sit  straight,  stretching  arms  as  though  just 

waking.    What  shall  we  do  to  make  us  lively  ?    Go  out  in 
the  snow  and  play. 

3.  Hurry  to  best  standing  position. 

4.  Pull  on  rubber  boots,  first  R  and  L. 

5.  Pull  cap  over  ears  (elbows  kept  out  and  back). 

6.  Very  cold  day.    Arms  must  be  warmed.    Arms  out  at  side. 

Fling  them  across  chest  and  slap  opposite  shoulders. 

7.  Stoop  way  down  and  pick  up  handful  of  snow,  make  snow- 

ball while  standing  erect.    Throw  snow-ball  at  some  spot 
in  room  with  R  arm.    Repeat  and  throw  with  L,  arm. 

8.  Walk  through  snow  drift  with  hands  on  hips,  lifting  feet  and 

knees  high  with  each  step. 

9.  Run  home. 

10.  Take  in  long  breaths  of  fresh  air,  raising  the  arms  straight 
from  the  sides  to  shoulder  height  as  breath  is  taken  in, 
lowering  them  as  breath  goes  out. 

SNOW   MAN 

1.  Pull  on  rubber  boots.    Bend  knee  up  and  stretch  arms.    As 

you  stretch  knee,  bend  arms,  pulling  on  boot. 

2.  Snow  falling  outside.     Reach  up  and  bring  hands  lightly 

down  to  floor,  bending  at  waist. 

3.  Walking  through  snow.    Bend  knee  high  and  reach  forward 

with  foot.    Put  foot  down  and  straighten  up.    Repeat  with 
other  foot,  etc. 


260  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

4.  To  make  snow  man,  roll  balls  of  snow.    Stoop  down,  gather 

up  and  roll  to  front  of  room.  First  make  body.  Run  back 
and  roll  another  to  make  head,  etc.  (When  complete  have 
a  child  come  forward  for  snow  man). 

5.  Make  snow  balls.    Kneel  on  one  knee  and  gather  up  hand- 

fuls  and  press  hard  on  knee. 

6.  Throw  at  man,  first  L  then  R.    As  ball  hits  head  child  drops 

head  forward.  Then  one  arm  drops  and  then  the  other. 
Finally  legs  are  hit  and  child  drops  to  floor  in  a  heap. 

7.  Breathing  to  get  warm. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES 

SQUIRREL   AND    NUT 

(Tag  game).  Players  all  seated  but  one,  heads  on  desks  and 
eyes  covered,  one  hand  open  on  desk  with  palm  up.  The  odd 
player  is  a  squirrel  and  passes  up  and  down  between  the  rows  and 
puts  a  nut  in  some  player's  hand.  This  one  rises  and  chases  the 
squirrel.  If  the  squirrel  is  caught  before  he  can  reach  his  own 
seat,  the  one  who  caught  him  becomes  squirrel ;  if  the  squirrel  is 
not  caught,  he  can  be  squirrel  again. 

I  SAW 

(Imitative.)  Tell  the  players  of  some  action  you  have  seen, 
then  imitate  it,  tell  them  they  are  to  imitate  it  too.  Examples: 
mowing  grass ;  picking  apples  and  placing  them  in  a  basket ;  chop- 
ping wood;  a  tall  man  walking  (on  toes)  ;  a  short  man  walking 
(knees  bent)  ;  a  lame  chicken  (hopping  on  one  foot)  ;  a  pendulum 
swinging  (resting  on  hands  on  desks),  etc.  When  they  get  the 
idea,  ask  who  has  seen  an  action  they  would  like  to  imitate,  and 
have  players  lead,  each  showing  one  action.  Encourage  a  variety 
of  actions  and  those  that  are  vigorous  enough  for  good  exercise. 
Some  can  be  done  with  pupils  standing  by  their  seats ;  others  in- 
volve walking  or  running  and  the  line  must  move  forward  and 
pass  around  a  course  to  the  starting  point. 


PLAY  26l 

TWELVE  O'CLOCK  AT  NIGHT 

(Tag  game).  Mark  off  a  fox's  den  in  one  corner  and  a 
chicken  yard  in  another.  Choose  a  player  to  be  the  fox  and  an- 
other to  be  the  mother  hen.  The  rest  of  the  players  are  chickens. 
The  mother  hen  arranges  the  chickens  in  a  compact  group  and 
then  leads  them  up  close  to  the  fox's  den  and  inquires:  "If 
you  please,  Mr.  Fox,  what  time  is  it?"  If  he  replies  an  hour 
except  midnight,  they  are  safe  and  may  play  about;  the  hen  lets 
them  play  a  moment  and  then  gets  them  together  again  and,  stand- 
ing between  them  and  the  fox,  asks  the  time  again.  When  he 
replies  "Twelve  o'clock  at  night,"  they  must  run  to  the  chicken 
yard,  and  the  fox  tries  to  tag  one.  The  fox  chooses  a  fox  for 
next  time,  the  mother  hen  chooses  another  player  in  her  place,  and 
the  game  begins  as  before. 

RUN  FOR  YOUR  SUPPER 

(Goal  game).  Players  in  a  circle.  One  player  chosen  by 
teacher  goes  around  inside,  holds  out  his  hand  between  two  play- 
ers and  says,  "Run  for  your  supper."  The  two  run  around  oppo- 
site ways  outside;  the  one  who  first  returns  to  the  vacant  place 
wins,  and  may  start  the  next  runners. 

BALL  DRILL 

(Imitative).  Players  grouped  by  twos  or  threes,  and  each 
group  has  a  ball  or  a  bean  bag.  The  players  of  each  group  pass 
the  ball  among  themselves  in  a  manner  stated  by  the  teacher,  but 
all  in  unison.  Various  styles  of  pass  can  be  used  and  players  may 
be  placed  at  any  suitable  distance  apart.  Examples:  Toss  with 
right  hand  and  catch  with  both ;  toss  with  left  and  catch  with  both ; 
catch  also  with  right  or  left ;  throw  forward  from  overhead ;  toss- 
ing backward  over  the  head ;  throwing  backward  under  left  arm, 
etc.  Players  will  suggest  other  good  variations.  Some  pupils 
will  prefer  to  play  this  while  the  larger  group  plays  some  other 
game. 


262  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

SQUIRRELS  IN  TREES 

• 

(Goal  game).  Have  three  players  stand  so  as  to  represent 
a  hollow  tree,  facing  center  with  hands  on  each  other's  shoulders ; 
have  a  fourth  player  stoop  within  to  represent  a  squarrel.  Have 
the  other  players  notice  how  this  is  done  and  then  have  them  all 
form  groups  of  four  in  same  way.  There  must  be  one  extra 
player  who  is  a  squirrel  without  a  tree.  When  the  teacher  claps 
hands  all  the  squirrels  must  change  trees,  and  the  homeless  squir- 
rel tries  to  get  a  tree.  This  leaves  another  squirrel  out  and  the 
game  is  repeated.  After  a  time  have  each  squirrel  choose  one 
of  the  players  of  the  tree  to  change  places  with  him,  so  as  to  give 
all  a  chance  to  be  squirrels. 

RACING 

(Individual  contest).  Have  two  or  more  players  race  from 
seats  or  class  positions  around  a  course  or  to  a  point  and  back  to 
starting  place.  Be  sure  all  have  a  fair  chance  to  win.  Repeat 
until  all  have  taken  a  turn.  Example :  from  front  seat  to  front 
wall  and  return. 

BIRDS 

(Tag  game).  Mark  out  a  nest  in  one  corner  and  a  cage  in 
another,  choose  two  bird  catchers  and  a  mother  bird,  and  name 
the  other  players  in  groups  of  three  or  four  after  kinds  of  birds. 
Have  the  mother  bird  stand  at  the  nest  and  the  two  catchers  in 
front  of  the  players,  between  cage  and  nest.  When  teacher  calls 
"Robins"  or  "Quail"  the  players  so  named  must  rise,  pass  to  rear 
of  room,  and  then  try  to  reach  the  nest  and  be  touched  by  the 
mother  bird  before  the  catchers  can  tag  them.  The  bird  catchers 
may  not  leave  their  place  in  front  until  the  birds  reach  the  rear  of 
the  room.  Birds  tagged  are  put  in  the  cage.  Call  one  kind  at  a 
time ;  and  see  whether  nest  or  cage  has  most  birds  when  all  have 
flown.  The  children  will  enjoy  having  the  bird  catchers  form  a 
door  to  the  cage  with  raised  arms,  and  all  the  other  players  count 
the  birds  aloud  as  they  come  out. 


PLAY  263 

CIRCLE  BALL 

(Imitative).  Players  in  a  circle,  standing  about  three  feet 
apart.  Have  them  pass  a  ball  or  bean  bag  around  the  circle.  When 
they  are  good  at  regular  passing,  have  them  pass  Irregularly  or 
across  in  any  direction.  Sometimes,  but  not  always,  have  those 
who  miss  go  out  of  the  game.  Encourage  alertness  and  quickness 
to  see  the  ball  and  catch  it. 

PUSS  IN  THE  CORNER 

(Goal  game).  Each  player  but  one  has  a  goal.  It  may  be 
a  chair,  desk,  mark,  corner  or  other  object.  The  one  who  has  no 
goal  goes  up  to  another  player  and  says,  "Pussy  wants  a  corner." 
The  answer  is,  "Ask  the  next  door  neighbor."  During  this  time 
the  others  change  goals,  and  the  odd  player  tries  to  get  one.  When 
he  has  tried  several  times  without  success  he  may  go  to  the  center 
of  the  space  and  call,  "All  Change,"  and  all  must  change  goals, 
giving  him  a  better  chance.  The  one  left  out  is  "It"  and  the 
game  begins  as  before. 

DROP    THE    HANDKERCHIEF 

(Tag  game).  Players  in  a  circle  facing  in.  One  player, 
who  is  called  the  "runner,"  runs  around  outside  the  circle  and 
drops  a  handkerchief  on  the  floor  behind  some  player,  who  then 
becomes  "chaser."  The  chaser  tries  to  tag  the  runner  before  he 
can  reach  the  vacant  place  the  chaser  has  left.  Both  may  run 
around,  across,  or  through  the  circle.  If  the  chaser  tags  the  run- 
ner, the  latter  is  runner  again ;  if  not,  the  chaser  becomes  runner 
for  the  next  game. 

This  can  be  played  in  the  schoolroom.  Players  sit  at  their 
desks  and  must  face  front.  Runner  goes  up  and  down  between 
rows  and  drops  handkerchief  on  the  desk  behind  the  one  who  is 
to  be  chaser.  If  the  runner  reaches  his  own  seat  before  the  chaser 
tags  him,  the  latter  is  runner  for  the  next  game. 


264  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

CROSSING  THE  BROOK 

(Individual  contest).  Draw  two  lines  on  floor  for  the  banks 
of  the  brook.  It  should  be  wider  at  one  end  than  at  the  other. 
If  there  are  many  players,  make  two  or  more  such  places.  The 
players  form  in  line  and  take  a  running  jump  across  the  brook. 
Those  who  step  in  the  brook  must  drop  out  of  line  to  dry  their 
feet.  Those  who  are  successful  in  the  jump  continue  around  a 
course  and  jump  again.  Have  them  try  to  jump  at  a  wider  place 
than  at  first.  Standing  jump  may  be  used  also. 

i  SAY  STOOP 

(Imitative).  A  leader  stands  before  the  class  and  says,  "I 
say  stoop,"  at  the  same  time  stooping  and  rising,  as  in  making  a 
deep  curtsy.  All  the  players  must  stoop  also,  but  if  the  leader 
sees  any  player  stoop  at  the  wrong  time  he  calls  that  player  to  the 
front  and  that  one  becomes  leader.  As  the  players  become  used 
to  it  the  play  is  carried  on  more  rapidly. 

FOX   AND    SQUIRREL 

(Tag  game).  Players  arranged  in  groups  of  four  as  in 
"Squirrels  in  Trees."  There  must  be  an  odd  squirrel  and  also 
another  player  who  is  the  fox.  The  fox  chases  the  odd  squirrel, 
who  can  escape  the  danger  by  going  in  a  tree,  since  foxes  cannot 
go  there.  But  a  tree  will  hold  only  one  squirrel,  hence  the  squirrel 
in  a  tree  must  run  out  as  soon  as  the  second  one  enters,  and  the 
fox  has  one  squirrel  to  chase  all  the  time.  Any  squirrel  tagged 
by  the  fox  when  out  of  a  tree  becomes  a  fox,  and  the  fox  then 
becomes  a  squirrel  and  must  instantly  run  away  and  get  in  a  tree 
to  avojd  being  caught. 

SCHOOL  BALL 

(Imitative) .  The  leader  tosses  a  ball  or  bean  bag  to  different 
players,  who  immediately  return  it  to  the  leader.  At  first  any 
form  of  throw  may  be  used;  later  the  ball  must  be  returned  by 
the  kind  of  throw  the  leader  uses.  Carelessness  may  be  corrected 


PLAY  265 

by  having  those  who  miss  leave  the  play,  but  this  is  not  best  for 
all  the  time.  It  is  a  miss  to  drop  the  ball  or  to  throw  it  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  leader.  Encourage  quick  and  unexpected  throws. 

GOOD  MORNING 

(Goal  game).  Players  in  a  circle.  One  player  goes  around 
outside  of  circle  and  taps  another  player  on  the  back.  They  run 
around  opposite  ways  and  on  meeting  on  the  other  side  of  the 
circle  they  must  stop  and  shake  hands  and  bow  and  say  "Good 
Morning"  three  times  and  then  go  on  in  the  same  direction  as 
before.  The  one  reaching  vacant  place  last  must  start  a  new 
game. 

SQUAT  TAG 

Choose  one  player  to  be  "It."  Players  stand  in  any  irregular 
places.  The  one  who  is  "It"  tries  to  tag  players,  and  they  are  free 
from  being  tagged  as  long  as  they  hold  a  squatting  position, 
(knees  bent).  When  the  one  who  is  "It"  is  not  near  they  stand 
up  again.  Each  player  may  use  this  way  to  escape  being  tagged 
three  times,  and  then  can  escape  only  by  running.  Anyone  who 
is  tagged  is  "It"  and  the  game  is  repeated. 

ADVANCING  STATUES 

(Group  Contest).  Divide  players  into  two  equal  groups. 
Place  the  groups  on  opposite  sides  of  the  playing  space,  with  a 
leader  between.  Explain  that  each  player  is  to  be  a  live  player 
when  the  leader  is  not  looking  at  him,  but  must  be  an  immovable 
statue  whenever  the  leader  looks  that  way.  Players  advance  to- 
ward the  leader  when  he  is  looking  another  way,  and  he  sends 
anyone  back  to  edge  of  play  space  if  he  sees  him  moving.  The 
side  which  first  reaches  the  center  of  the  play  space  wins  the 
contest. 

FOX    AND    CHICKEN 

(Tag  game).  Choose  a  player  to  be  fox  and  another  to  be 
the  mother  hen.  The  other  players  are  chickens  and  all  form  in 
line  behind  the  mother  hen,  each  one  grasping  the  waist  of  the  one 


266  PHYSICAL,  TRAINING 

in  front.  The  fox  tries  to  tag  the  last  chicken ;  the  line,  led  by 
the  mother  hen,  turns  and  tries  to  keep  between  the  fox  and  that 
chicken.  When  the  last  chicken  is  tagged  he  becomes  fox  and 
the  mother  hen  chooses  another  player  in  her  place. 

HUNTSMAN 

(Goal  game).  Choose  a  leader  and  have  this  leader  march 
around  in  any  way  he  chooses,  having  all  the  players  fall  in  line 
behind  him  and  march  as  he  does.  When  the  leader  sees  that  all 
are  in  line  and  away  from  their  seats  he  calls  "Bang,"  when  all 
scamper  for  their  own  seats.  The  first  one  to  be  seated  in  his 
own  seat  can  be  leader  next  time.  Each  leader  starts  the  game  by 
saying  "Who  would  like  to  go  with  me  to  hunt  ducks?"  (or  bears, 
rabbits,  foxes,  etc.) 


PLAYS  AND  GAMES  SUITABLE  FOR  A 
FOURTH  GRADE 

OVERTAKE 

(Relay).  Players  in  a  large  circle  in  a  clear  space.  Number 
around  the  circle  by  ones  and  twos.  The  ones  play  against  the 
twos.  One  team  should  be  marked  by  a  paper  pinned  on  hand- 
kerchief around  arm,  or  some  other  way  that  will  make  players 
easily  distinguished.  Each  team  has  a  leader  standing  near  the 
center  of  the  circle,  and  each  leader  has  a  ball.  At  a  signal  from 
the  teacher  each  leader  tosses  the  ball  to  one  of  his  team  who 
quickly  tosses  it  back.  It  is  tossed  to  each  one  of  the  team  in 
turn  and  tossed  back,  going  around  the  circle  clockwise.  Each 
team  tries  to  overtake  the  other.  The  one  finishing  a  round  first 
is  given  a  score.  Repeat,  going  in  opposite  direction.  Each  leader 
may  begin  each  time  with  any  player  of  his  side.  The  side  first 
getting  ten  scores  wins. 


PLAY  267 

HAVE  YOU  SEEN   MY  SHEEP? 

(Tag  game).  Players  in  a  circle.  One  player  is  chosen  as 
shepherd.  He  goes  around  the  outside,  taps  a  player  on  the  back 
and  asks,  "Have  You  Seen  My  Sheep  ?"  The  players  asks,  "How 
is  he  dressed?"  The  shepherd  then  tells  something  of  the  dress 
of  one  of  the  players  in  the  circle,  as  —  "He  wears  a  blue  coat  and 
low  shoes."  The  player  questioned  tries  to  guess,  as  details  are 
added  to  the  description.  When  he  guesses  correctly  the  shepherd 
says  "Yes,"  and  the  guesser  chases  the  one  described.  Both  must 
run  on  the  outside  of  the  circle.  If  the  chaser  catches  the  runner 
before  the  latter  has  returned  to  his  place,  the  chaser  becomes 
shepherd  ;  if  he  does  not,  the  runner  becomes  shepherd.  Notice 
that  the  shepherd  does  not  run. 

THE    BEATER    GOES    ROUND 

(Goal  game).  Players  seated,  eyes  closed  and  hands  held 
behind  the  back.  A  player  with  a  knotted  handkerchief  goes  on 
tip-toe  up  and  down  the  aisles  and  drops  the  handkerchief  in 
some  player's  hands.  The  player  receiving  the  handkerchief  at 
once  begins  to  beat  the  one  in  front  of  him  between  the  shoulders 
with  it.  The  one  hit  jumps  up  and  runs  around  the  room  to  escape 
and  the  beater  chases  him  and  hits  him  as  often  as  he  can  until 
the  runner  has  regained  his  own  seat.  The  beater  then  goes  round 
on  tip-toe,  puts  the  handkerchief  in  another  player's  hands,  and 
the  game  goes  on.  This  can  also  be  played  in  a  circle  in  an 
open  space. 

TOSS 


(Imitative).  Players  seated.  Teacher  or  leader  has  a  bean 
bag  or  a  rather  large  and  light  ball.  Leader  tosses  the  ball  quickly 
to  any  player,  and  that  one  must  rise  and  catch  it  and  throw  it 
back.  If  he  misses  it  or  fails  to  rise  before  it  reaches  him  he 
has  one  point  counted  against  him.  Success  depends  on  quick 
and  accurate  work  by  the  leader  and  showing  no  partiality.  Later 
it  may  be  best  to  require  the  ball  to  be  returned  by  the  same  kind 
of  throw  used  by  the  leader. 


268  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

HURLY  BURLY  BEAN  BAG 

(Relay).  Players  seated,  a  bean  bag  on  each  front  desk.  At 
signal  each  front  player  takes  bag  and  tosses  it  up  and  back  over 
his  head.  The  player  behind  him  must  clap  his  hands  after  bag 
is  thrown  and  then  catch  it  or  pick  it  up  and  do  the  same  with  it. 
Rear  player,  on  getting  it,  hops  down  aisle  to  front  of  room  and 
there  executes  some  movement  previously  agreed  upon ;  while  he 
is  doing  this  all  the  other  players  move  back  one  seat.  When  he 
has  finished  the  movement  the  player  from  the  rear  takes  the  front 
seat  and  begins  as  at  first.  This  continues  until  the  player  who 
wos  in  the  front  seat  reaches  it  again  and  puts  the  bag  on  the  desk 
as  in  the  beginning.  The  row  doing  this  first  wins. 

PARTNER  TAG 

Players  seated.  Choose  a  chaser  and  a  runner.  Runner  may 
become  free  by  taking  a  seat  with  another  player,  who  must 
then  jump  up  and  be  runner.  If  the  chaser  tags  the  runner,  the 
latter  at  once  becomes  chaser  and  must  tag  the  one  who  caught 
him  if  possible.  Notice  that  this  is  much  like  "Fox  and  Squirrel," 
(First  Grade,  Second  Half  Year),  but  less  dramatic.  This  can 
be  played  and  is  more  difficult  with  the  players  standing  in  couples 
in  an  open  space,  the  couples  in  a  line  or  in  irregular  positions.  In 
this  case  the  way  to  escape  is  to  grasp  the  arm  of  one  player  of  a 
couple,  and  'the  partner  of  that  player  then  becomes  runner. 

MEET  AT  THE  SWITCH 

(Individual  contest).  Teacher  stands  in  front  of  the  room, 
a  bean  bag  in  each  hand.  Two  players  stand  ready  and  at  a 
signal  each  takes  one  of  the  bags  from  the  teacher's  hand  and 
they  run  around  the  room  in  opposite  directions,  passing  at  the 
rear  of  the  room  like  cars  on  the  switch,  each  turning  to  right. 
The  one  returning  the  bag  to  the  teacher  first  wins.  This  can  be 
made  a  group  contest  by  having  two  teams,  counting  a  score  for 
each  winner,  and  seeing  which  side  gets  most  scores. 


PI,AY  269 

OVERHEAD  RELAY 

Players  standing  in  rows  in  an  open  space,  same  number  in 
each  row  and  end  players  of  each  row  standing  on  a  line  on  the 
floor,  to  give  the  rows  an  equal  length.  Players  face  so  as  to  stand 
one  behind  another.  Front  player  of  each  row  has  a  ball.  At  a 
signal  the  ball  is  passed  back  over  the  heads  of  the  players ;  the 
rear  player  runs  forward  on  right  side  of  his  row,  takes  his  place 
at  the  front,  and  at  once  begins  the  same  player.  This  continues 
until  the  player  who  was  in  front  at  first  comes  to  the  same  place 
again  and  holds  the  ball  up.  The  row  doing  this  first  wins.  It  is 
a  foul  if  any  player  fails  to  handle  the  ball  in  his  turn,  if  any 
player  who  drops  the  ball  does  not  himself  get  it  and  pass  it  on 
from  his  place  in  the  row,  or  if  end  players  do  not  stand  on  the 
floor  lines.  Fouls  should  be  penalized  as  in  Bean  Bag  Relay, 
(Third  Grade,  Second  Half  Year). 

POTATO  RACE 

(Individual  Contest).  Mark  a  starting  line  near  one  side  of 
an  open  playing  space;  six  feet  from  it  make  a  circle  18  inches  in 
diameter,  and  at  intervals  of  3  feet  from  the  circle  and  beyond  it 
mark  from  6  to  10  crosses,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  room.  In 
the  circle  place  as  many  bean  bags,  potatoes,  erasers  or  blocks  of 
wood  as  you  have  crosses.  This  is  the  outfit  for  one  runner; 
provide  as  many  as  room  and  time  allow.  The  players  can  do 
this  quickly  by  organizing  -the  work.  At  the  signal  each  player 
who  is  to  run  starts  forward  from  the  starting  line,  takes  a  bag 
from  the  circle  and  places  it  on  a  cross,  returns  and  gets  another 
and  places  it  likewise,  and  continues  until  all  are  placed ;  then  he 
returns  to  the  starting  line.  The  first  to  cross  the  starting  line 
after  doing  his  work  is  winner.  It  is  a  foul  to  fail  to  leave  a  bag 
off  a  cross.  The  next  set  of  runners  can  start  with  the  bags  on 
the  crosses  and  bring  them  one  by  one  to  the  circle. 

This  can  be  made  a  group  contest  by  having  teams  and  count- 
ing the  scores  in  the  different  races.  It  can  also  be  done  in  the 
aisles  of  the  schoolroom. 


270  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

BLACKBOARD  RELAY,  SECOND 

This  like  the  blackboard  relay  played  in  the  third  grade,  but 
instead  of  marks  and  letters,  words  must  be  written;  these  may 
be  required  to  form  a  sentence,  numbers  may  be  written  and 
afterwards  added,  subtracted,  etc.,  by  the  succeeding  players,  or 
each  player  may  write  his  own  name.  It  is  often  interesting  to 
have  the  last  player  required  to  erase  all  his  team  has  written,  or 
each  child  may  erase  his  own  writing,  passing  the  eraser  as  he 
did  the  chalk. 

AND    CARRY 


(Relay).  Draw  a  circle  18  inches  in  diameter  in  front  of 
each  row  of  seats  close  to  the  front  wall.  Give  each  pupil  a  bean 
bag.  At  the  signal  each  front  pupil  runs  forward,  places  his  bag 
in  the  circle,  and  resumes  his  seat.  His  being  seated  is  the  signal 
for  the  next  to  do  the  same,  and  so  on  till  all  the  bags  are  in  the 
circles.  The  first  to  finish  is  given  a  score,  providing  every  bag 
is  in  the  circle. 

Now  the  play  is  reversed.  At  the  signal  the  last  player  goes 
and  gets  his  bean  bag  and  after  he  is  seated  he  touches  the  one 
in  front  of  him  as  a  signal  to  go.  In  this  way  all  the  bags  are 
brought  back  to  the  seats  and  the  winner  given  a  score.  The  play 
may  be  continued  for  a  stated  time  and  the  score  counted,  or  the 
first  to  gain  a  certain  score  may  be  the  winner,  by  previous 
agreement. 

STAND 


(Tag  Game)  .  Players  scattered  about  an  open  playing  space. 
The  teacher  tosses  up  a  basket  ball,  volley  ball,  or  indoor  baseball 
and  calls  the  name  of  a  player.  That  player  runs  and  gets  the  ball 
and  the  others  run  as  far  away  as  possible  in  the  space.  As 
soon  as  the  first  player  gets  the  ball  he  calls  "Stand,"  and  all  must 
stop  ;  the  one  with  the  ball  must  stop  also,  and  roll  the  ball  at  the 
others  from  where  he  picked  it  up.  No  player  may  move  a  foot 
to  escape  being  hit  ;  if  he  does,  or  if  he  is  hit,  he  is  "It'  and  gets 
the  ball,  calls  "Stand,"  and  in  all  ways  does  as  the  first  one  did. 
As  soon  as  one  is  hit  the  others  are  free  to  run  away  until  he 


PI,AY  271 

gets  the  ball  and  calls  "Stand."  If  no  one  is  hit,  the  same  player 
must  go  after  the  ball  and  be  "It"  again.  The  ball  must  be  rolled, 
not  thrown  at  the  players,  unless  all  are  equally  large  and  strong, 
when  throwing  may  be  allowed  if  all  agree  to  it. 

DUCKS  FLY 

(Imitative).  Similar  to  "Do  This,"  (Second  Grade,  First 
Half  Year),  but  more  difficult.  For  example,  the  leader  may  say 
"Boys  run"  and  run  in  place,  when  all  must  imitate;  but  if  he 
should  say  "Fish  run"  or  "Fences  run"  they  should  not  imitate ; 
Many  exercises  may  be  used,  such  as  walk,  jump,  stoop,  swim, 
fly,  hop,  throw,  catch,  bat,  whirl,  etc.  Whenever  the  leader  sees 
any  player  fail  to  imitate  when  he  should  or  imitate  when  he 
should  not  he  may  call  that  one  to  be  leader  in  his  place. 

TEN  TRIPS 

(Relay).  Players  in  groups  of  three,  with  the  three  in  a 
straight  line  ten  to  twenty  feet  apart.  Each  group  has  a  ball. 
The  center  player  has  the  ball,  and  at  the  signal  he  throws  it  to 
another  of  his  group,  who  must  throw  it  to  the  third,  over  the 
head  of  the  first  player ;  the  third  returns  it  to  the  one  in  the 
center.  When  he  receives  it  the  center  player  says  "One  Trip," 
and  begins  as  before.  The  group  completing  ten  trips  first  is 
given  a  score ;  the  first  to  make  ten  scores  wins  the  contest. 

BEAN  BAG  TARGET 

(Contest  between  Groups).  A  target  consists  of  three  con- 
centric rings  on  the  floor,  five,  ten,  and  fifteen  inches  in  diameter. 
Draw  as  many  targets  on  floor  at  front  of  room  as  room  and  time 
permit.  Have  as  many  teams  as  targets.  Each  team  has  three 
bean  bags,  which  are  to  be  thrown  at  the  targets  from  a  distance 
of  fifteen  feet,  marked  in  the  aisle.  One  player  throws  all  three 
bags  at  the  target  in  turn  and  then  the  score  is  counted ;  ten  for 
each  bag  in  the  center,  five  for  each  in  the  next,  and  one  for  each 
in  the  outer  circle.  A  bag  on  a  line  counts  as  if  it  were  in  the 
space  just  outside  of  that  line.  There  should  be  a  score  keeper 


272  PHYSICAL    TRAINING 

to  mark  up  the  scores  on  the  board  as  they  are  made.  Each  player 
after  throwing  gets  the  bags  and  tosses  them  to  the  next.  This 
may  be  played  slowly  and  without  taking  account  of  time  used,  or 
a  certain  number  of  minutes  may  be  set  and  each  team  try  to  earn 
as  many  scores  as  possible  in  the  time,  each  throwing  in  turn  until 
the  time  is  up.  The  first  method  is  best  to  develop  accuracy  in 
throwing,  while  the  second  is  better  exercise. 

SNATCH   A   CLUB 

(Goal  Game).  This  is  like  "Marching  to  Jerusalem,"  (Sec- 
ond Grade,  First  Half  Year),  but  is  played  without  seats.  Each 
player  but  one  has  an  Indian  club.  All  march  in  a  circle,  stop  and 
place  clubs  on  floor  just  within  the  circle  of  players.  They  march 
forward  around  the  circle  of  clubs  with  the  music  or  by  a  signal, 
and  when  the  music  stops  or  second  signal  is  given,  all  try  to 
snatch  a  club.  The  one  who  fails  to  get  a  club  must  give  the  sig- 
nals for  next  round  and,  when  the  clubs  are  placed  on  the  floor, 
must  take  one  and  go  and  sit  down  when  his  duty  as  leader  is 
done.  Continue  till  but  one  player  is  left  as  the  winner.  Bean 
bags  may  be  used  in  place  of  Indian  clubs.  It  is  well  to  mark  the 
circle  for  clubs  with  chalk  beforehand. 

CORNER  SPY 

(Relay).  Place  a  group  in  each  of  the  four  corners,  N.,  S., 
E.,  W.  Four  captains  stand  in  the  center  facing  their  groups, 
each  having  a  bean  bag.  At  the  signal  each  captain  tosses  the 
bag  to  the  first  player  of  his  group  who  returns  it  to  the  captain. 
It  is  passed  in  this  way  to  all  the  players,  and  when  it  reaches 
the  last  one  the  captain  calls  "Corner  Spy,"  at  which  the  first 
player  runs  out  and  becomes  captain,  all  the  players  move  up  one 
place,  and  the  former  captain  takes  the  last  place.  Each  player 
thus  is  captain  in  turn,  and  each  tosses  the  bag  to  all  the  players 
before  calling,  "Corner  Spy."  The  team  whose  original  captain 
comes  to  the  captain's  position  and  receives  the  ball  first  after 
all  the  rest  have  served,  wins  the  contest. 


PLAY  273 


(Tag  Game).  Players  form  a  circle,  count  off  by  twos,  and 
each  number  one  steps  behind  the  player  at  his  right.  This  quickly 
gives  a  double  circle,  players  facing  center.  Choose  one  for  a 
chaser  and  another  for  a  runner.  The  play  is  like  partner  tag. 
The  runner  may  run  around  or  between  the  players  and  may  be- 
come safe  by  going  in  front  of  any  group  of  two  and  remaining 
there,  thus  forming  one  group  that  is  "three  deep."  The  chaser 
can  tag  the  rear  one  of  any  group  that  is  three  deep.  The  player 
who  finds  himself  at  the  rear  of  a  group  of  three  should  hasten 
to  go  in  front  of  a  group  before  the  chaser  can  tag  him.  One 
who  is  tagged  at  once  becomes  chaser,  and  should  tag  the  one 
who  caught  him  if  possible.  Discourage  long  runs  and  encourage 
quick  changes  instead. 

OVER  AND  UNDKR  RKL,AY 

Like  "Overhead  Relay"  except  that  two  balls  or  other  objects 
are  passed,  the  first  overhead  and  the  second  between  the  feet. 
The  first  player  counts  ten  between  the  passing  of  the  first  and 
second  objects  ;  the  last  player  runs  to  head  of  line  after  receiving 
both.  It  can  be  played  in  the  school  room  by  having  alternate 
rows  play  at  same  time,  so  as  to  leave  a  free  aisle  for  running. 

STATUE  TAG 

This  is  like  "Squat  Tag,"  (First  Grade),  except  that  the 
one  who  is  "It"  begins  by  showing  a  posture  to  be  taken  by  the 
players.  .  This  may  be  any  gymnastic  position  or  a  position  taken 
in  any  sport  or  occupation.  To  escape  tagging,  the  players  may 
assume  this  posture,  but  as  in  squat  tag,  each  may  do  so  but  three 
times,  and  then  he  may  be  tagged.  The  first  one  tagged  is  "It," 
and  may  set  a  new  posture  to  be  taken. 

For  description  of  other  games  of  the  same  character  as  the 
above  see  Michigan  State  Course  in  Physical  Training. 

For  more  complex  games  see  Handbook  of  Games,  by  Ban- 
croft and  Pulvermacher. 


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